TRADITIONS Though woven all over Nepal, the rari has been associated with the Gurungs for centuries. It is believed that the finest quality rari is made in Rumjatar in east Nepal, where it is a cottage industry. Used to sit or sleep on or as a rug, the small, fringed sleeping-mat (burkasan) is about 70 cm X 150 cm in size; larger raris are made up from two or more panels joined at the selvedge. Traditionally, it is the women who prepare the yarn and weave the rari in their leisure hours, when their agricultural and household duties are done; the men do the final finishing and felting, or help with the warping or the heavy wool embroidery which is applied after weaving. It is the man's job to sell raris that are woven for sale - it is a common sight to see men carrying three or four raris of different sizes on their shoulders at markets and village bazaars while they look for buyers. The rari is priced much lower than the Tibetan woollen carpets and there is a huge demand for them in the winter months. The weaving is therefore timed for the summer and the selling in the chilly months of winter. The rari not only serves the purpose of pallet but is also used for a number of other purposes. A high quality rari can be converted into a warm overcoat (bakkhu) or into warm vests, scarves, and bags. Rari weavers have made modifications in sizes and patterns to capture changing requirements and are also weaving small-sized pieces with coloured designs on them. The traditional rari, however, is still a valuable trade item even today at village markets as well as in the streets of Kathmandu.

RAW MATERIALS The local baruwarl sheep is the main and most sought after source of raw material for rari weaving, though other varieties of local wool are also used. The fleece of the baruwarl is short and rather hard. Garments are woven mainly from the soft wool of the first and second shearing, and raris from later shearing. The different shades of the baruwal fleece - ranging from white, to beige and brown, and black - are used by the weavers in patterning. Tapestry-type patterned blankets are also sometimes dyed with ochre, obtained from walnut shell, and light red from madder. The main varieties of baruwala wool include:

• Garve wool - that is obtained from a lamb whose wool has never been sheared - this wool is obtained as a first crop and is therefore very soft, fine, and of high quality.
• Chharve wool - a variety that is obtained as a second or third crop of the baruwala and is less soft and of medium quality.
• Torbe wool - the third variety of the baruwala is obtained as a third or forth crop. It is usually rough and of low quality.

Garve and Chharve wool are not normally used while weaving the rari as they are used in making outer clothing like coats and other items. The rough torbe wool is the preferred variety. The colours of the wool range from white, to black, and grey, and shades in between; the black wool is the most expensive. Wool is also obtained from different varieties of locally available sheep: the wool of the chyangra is used. Two grades of wool are obtained from the chyangra. The portion of the wool, about an inch long, near the skin of the animal is of a high quality is used in weaving mufflers and shawls - it is very soft, of high quality, and very expensive. The end portion of the wool is rough and is used in the making of the rari. Wool obtained from local kage ram is also used though, it is not the first choice of the weaver. A rari made only of the wool o the kage is very rough and even a slight jerk or rub causes the wool to shred off the rari.

PROCESS & TECHNIQUE The wool is carefully sheared using a chupi (knife); as a large quantity of wool is required the rari maker often needs to go to other villages to fulfil the requirement of wool. The quality of wool thus collected is therefore of different grades. The wool is then washed, dried, matted, and heaped together in a big entangled mass. It is then shredded into soft fluffy fur. This is done with a special instrument that is shaped like a large wooden bow linked with a fine skin rope (dhanu). The people of the Terai are experts in its usage and they travel from village to village with their triangular dhanu on their shoulder. The dhanu carrier is an expert - in a short time he can break up two or three dharnis of lumpy cotton or wool into fluff. He hits the string of the skin rope with a wooden handle, and the vibrating string continuously hits the lump of wool or cotton, breaking it apart instantly. The spinning wheel or charkha made of wood is used in preparing yarn out of raw wool or cotton by rotating the spindle; it is then wound on the pin of the wheel. The yarn (tan) is then stretched in parallel positions on the loom on which the actual weaving is done. The main components of the loom are similar across the board, but some Gurung weavers in east Nepal use cross-sticks rather than the coil-rod warp separator, and the warp is laid without the warp lock-stick. When the weaving is complete, it is taken off the loom; the un-woven warp threads (12-20 cm long) at the end or between the panels are looped around each other to form a secure border with warp fringes when the circular warp is cut. The cloth panels are then ready for finishing, joining, or tailoring; however, there is still some work to be done on the raris before they undergo their more unusual finishing/felting process. The burkasans used for sleeping, are usually woven full width and need no joining; where they have fringes all the way round, these are added at this stage. Woollen, two-ply yarn strands (15-20 cm long) are knotted into both the selvage sides with lark's head knots. Larger raris are joined at the selvage to form a complete pattern. Before the stitching a lot of pulling and stretching often has to be done so that the pattern will actually meet. For the highly valued double blanket/rug, two single raris of the same size but with different patterns are placed one on top of the other and joined by knotting the fringes through both layers of selvages. The two blankets will adhere completely during the felting process, giving the impression of a single piece of weaving and concealing how this rug with two completely different sides was woven. The quality of the rari, including its ability to withstand wind and water, depends, to some extent, on the finishing/ felting process, which might take a whole day. The rari is then dipped in lukewarm or cold water and rubbed vigorously on a large flat stone slab or wooden plank, preferably by trampling. The more the rari is rubbed, the thicker it becomes - as the stamping operation is tedious and difficult, it is usually done by the men. This process is repeated three times. The felter, supported by two long bamboo sticks, shifts his weight from one foot to the other during this process of felting. This causes the thin net-like structure of the rari to disappear, giving the product a uniform smoothness and thickness. Raris shrink considerably during felting and through the matting of the yarn fibres the texture becomes so close that sometimes one cannot recognise it as weaving.

TRADITIONS & CLASSIFICATIONS Broadly speaking, the masks representing gods, goddesses, demons, and animals can be classified into four main categories.

1. Masks that represent gods and are worn by humans.
2. Ornamental masks that are used in temples in observance of religious rituals.
3. Masks that are used in processions while celebrating festivals and jatras.
4. Masks that are made especially for the tourist trade.

The first three categories adhere to strict rules of iconography and iconometry. These masks - representing gods, goddesses, and demons are endowed with their own attributes and are cast according to the ritual or scene that is to be worshipped or depicted, thereby resulting in immediate identification by the worshipper. As these masks represent images of deities that are worshipped, they need to be constructed very carefully - even the colours used carry their own message(s) and significance. For instance, red is associated with animal sacrifices and anger, blue-black with energy and power, and white with purity and death. The mask is only one part of the ensemble; the dancers must also wear the appropriate clothes and ornaments, which, along with the mount, motifs, the mukuta (crown), and accessories, are also represented with their exact attributes. Masks are not only distinguished from each other by their forms and by their colours but also by their very distinctive and individual head-gears. Besides representing gods, goddesses and demons the masks also include representation of tigers, bears, lions and other animals. And all the dancers who wear masks are men The processions on the occasion of the major festivals are important parts of the proceedings.

The dances of the nava-durga in all localities of the Kathmandu Valley are linked with the agricultural cycle, and in particular with rice production. The masked dances cease during the monsoon. The masks used in Bhaktapur and at Kathmandu are ritually destroyed with fire before the monsoon starts; they 'come to life' or are re-made in the month of September, during the festival of Dussehra. The exception to this rule are the masks of the nava-durga dancers at Theco, formerly a part of the kingdom of Patan: these are not destroyed annually after the troupe's performance, but are instead repaired, re-plastered, and re-painted every year and stored in the temple. Every 12 years, however, at the time of the major festival of Theco, new masks are made and the old masks; the old masks are not destroyed but now stored in the attic of the local temple. PRACTITIONERS & CRAFT LOCATIONS The masks made traditionally as well as in contemporary times, are made by members of the Newar chitrakar community of painter. The painters follow the rules of iconography very carefully or else the masks cannot be consecrated, and subsequently cannot be used for religious purposes. The chitrakars pass through a religious initiation (diksha) before they can employ their training in the making of ritual masks. Thimu and Bhaktapur are the main centres for crafting masks that are used in ritual masked dances and processions.

PROCESS & TECHNIQUE For religious and ritual masks, strict rules of iconography have to be adhered to. For each deity, the exact proportions, colours, symbols, and mukuta (crown/diadem) are laid down. Reference folding books - containing details of the dimensions, colours, and attributes for the images of the different gods and goddesses - are available to chitrakars, and are followed scrupulously. It is believed that if the rules of iconography are not followed a benevolent deity can become a demoniac force; therefore a painter cannot break any rules while depicting a religious image. A in existence a number of folding books of iconographic drawings are still available, the earliest one dating from the first half of the fifteenth century. As these masks are ritually destroyed after use - and thus need to be continuously renewed and remade - tradition dictates that the new masks contain a bit of the old as well. Therefore, in the months of April and May, on the day of sithinaka, when ponds and wells throughout the Kathmandu Valley are cleansed, the old masks are burnt; and most of the ashes are cremated, some proportion is used in the new masks, thereby creating a link with the past - a sense of continuity. The ritual mask painting is done in the month of August/September, one month before the Dussehra festival. The masks are made of clay mixed with bits of cotton and a locally made gum paste made from wheat flour. This mixture is prepared by the painter and then separated into 13 parts. Each part is placed over a low-relief mould which is covered with a clean black cloth - the painters presses the flattened clay with his fingers so that it takes on the contours of the mould. The clay mask forms are left to dry on the moulds for about four days. After they are removed from the moulds, the masks are painted with a mixture of boiled wheat-flour, water, and animal glue; this dries to a semi-opaque finish. Previously, the chitrakars used vegetable and mineral colours to paint the mask; now, however, it is chemical colours that are predominantly used. A CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE In the past two decades, many commercial artists in the Kathmandu Valley have started making masks for the tourist and export trade. Stores all over the Valley sell these masks, either as wall hangings or as puppets. Though not as beautiful and carefully constructed as the ritual masks, the masks made for commercial purposes are well-appreciated and have markets all over the world. The masks are sold in shops in Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur.

Tradition and History  The art of roghan painting on cloth goes back centuries. Local legend has it that this art came into India from the Afridis, originating in Syria; the route it followed wound through Persia, Afghanistan and Pakistan, and then to India. The craft became concentrated in the northwestern parts of India, and was practised mainly by the Muslim descendants of the Afridis - the product came to be called Afridi lac cloth or Peshawar lac cloth. Sir George Watt in his book Indian Art at Delhi, an exhibition catalogue published in 1903, found that a similar craft form was practised not only by the Afridis but also in Peshawar, Lahore and Pattan where castor oil was used and in Kutch where linseed oil was the base. In all these centres the craft was practised by Muslims possibly descended from the Pattans.

George Watt also described the 'Afridi wax print' process and how the oils were extracted using both the hot and cold methods. It is noted that wild safflower or poli seeds were crushed to extract the oil and boiled for 12 hours after which they were plunged in water; as a result of this, this became a gelatinous substance called roghan. In the Kutch region of Gujarat, he noted that castor seed or khardi seeds were used for the oil-extraction and that this process was difficult as the results depended on a high level of skill and dexterity. To quote from T.N. Mukharji's Art Manufactures of India, published in 1888 for the Glasgow International Exhibition: 'Another curious variety, which, though not cotton-printing strictly speaking, may be conveniently noted here, is the lac and colour painting on red and blue cotton fabrics produced in the Peshawar District. Blocks are not used, but red, yellow and other colours in a thick sticky pigment are applied in bold semi-barbaric patterns, on which, as they dry, abrak or powdered talc is sprinkled.' He further notes that roghan was extracted from linseed oil and that the craft was not confined only to the Panjab frontier, but was also being practised by Hindus at Ahmedabad and Morvi, in the Bombay Presidency. At Nasik, similar kinds of processes were noticed - the use of a perforated stamp fixed at the end of a tube full of colour used to produce a pattern similar to the perforated cylinders used to make patterns in front of thresholds. The colour used was either in the form of a dry powder or mixed with linseed oil. When the paint dried on the cloth, dried mica was sprinkled over it. At Peshawar it was noted that the technique followed was a little different: the work was traced with a stick, there was no use of stamps or cylinders, and the quality of the colours used was very good.

Feliccia Yacopino has stated in her book, Threadlines Pakistan, that Afridi wax cloth was sold in the bazaars of Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi where it was known as 'khosi', from the word 'khosai' (the dress of the Afridi women). The colours used for roghan included trisulphide of arsenic for yellow, red lead oxide for red, white lead or barium sulphate for white, and indigo for blue. Powdered lime was added to thicken the runny roghan into a workable consistency and mica flakes - along with gold and silver leaf - were also pressed into the raised patterns for tinsel work. It has been recorded in George Watt's book that the artisan makes the roghan paste into a small ball in the heel of his left palm with a six-inch metal rod. The stylus or the instrument used to transfer the designs onto the cloth is held in the right hand into which the Roghan is put; from this the coloured material flows according to the pattern being made by the artisan. Finger art roghan designs even than were done by free hand. Even though, traditionally, roghan-designed cloth was used both in India and abroad for clothing and furnishings - as table cloths, household decorations, prayer cloths and fire screens - yet roghan was only a marginal tradition and not very well known.

Practitioners and Location  There are now only a few artisans in Nirona (Kutch) practising the art of roghan painting. These artisans have been practising this craft for generations. There are a few other families from Chobari village (also in Kutch) who also practice this craft. We spoke to Khatri Sadiq Bhai whose family has been practising roghan for eight generations. There are about four other artisans from his village who still practise this craft; however, when more lucrative opportunities are available, they are willing to abandon the craft. Khatri Sadiq Bhai himself left roghan painting for six years to set up a textile shop, but returned to practise his family's traditional craft form again.

Materials, Processes and Techniques  The basic raw material used to make the roghan are the seeds of the wild safflower (carthamus oxyc anthus), and linseed or castor seeds which are pressed to produce oil. The seeds are all hand-pounded and then boiled for over 12 hours to thicken the substance: it is then thrown into cold water to get the roghan. The water in which the roghan is immersed prevents it from drying out. The roghan is then coloured with various dyes: red, white, yellow, blue and green are popular colours, while silver and gold leaf is used to create special effects. The roghan is made into a workable consistency by adding a quantity of lime to it. The practices followed and the materials used for the roghan painting have not changed over time, proof of which can be found from notes on the craft from almost a hundred years ago.

The chief tool used in roghan painting it is a six-inch metal stylus that has a pointed tip. The artisan places, by rough measure, about a teaspoon of roghan on his left palm; the roghan is then made pliable and of a workable consistency by using the palm as a palette and by briskly mixing it with the stylus. The stylus is then used to stretch and draw out the roghan threads on to the fabric to form the desired design through free-hand application or by following the lines of a pre-drawn design. Artisans with a high level of skill and dexterity work very comfortably from left to right as well as from right to left. Interestingly, when the design being is painted, the stylus does not touch the surface of the cloth; the transfer of the semi-solid roghan thread is done with great deftness and skill. The cloth is held by the artisan from underneath and is moved forwards and backwards according to the needs of the pattern being laid out. With years of practice, this process can be made to appear very effortless. When the design made is intended to be identical on the two halves of the cloth, the design is painted onto one side of the cloth and the cloth is then folded onto itself: the design transfers itself in a mirror image on the other half.

When a solid patch of colour is required, the artisan allows the stylus with the dangling thread of roghan to move over the area in a single direction. So parallel lines of roghan are laid down next to one another and the threads are pressed down with a moistened fingertip: the threads thus adhere to one another and form a coloured patch. Colours are applied one by one and only when one colour has been used exhaustively is the next colour introduced. When Khatri Sadiq Bhai of Nirona demonstrated roghan painting, the effortless ease with which the design unfolded and took shape was a marvellous indication of the skill involved. When the roghan thread has been placed on the fabric with the stylus, the artisan presses it into the fabric with a moistened fingertip. The roghan sinks into the fabric of the material and adheres to it. When the roghan dries, it is hard, and the fabric can then be washed without any problem. Powdered mica or abrak and imitation gold powder can be added onto the roghan design to give the whole design a silver or golden sheen. Even after the roghan dries, the sheen and gloss remain: the powder does not rub off. Fabric with roghan on it is very durable and can be washed with no loss in its sheen or pattern.

Design and Products  The designs found in roghan usually include geometric and floral patterns, with birds and beasts being depicted sometimes. The products made include saris, cushions, kurtas (long dress-like shirts), home furnishings, ghagras (long skirts), wall hangings, book covers, file covers, table linen and bed covers. Earlier there was a demand for roghan embellished products like chabla, dhranjo and other items of clothing; this demand has, however, given way to a demand for the items mentioned above.This unique but fading craft has a lot to teach us. Its use of different oil seeds in creating colour for textile embellishment is of value to all serious researchers, students and designers. The need of the hour is to create new products and markets for this craft, which undoubtedly has the possibility of increased growth and development.