Crafts – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage

Kuthuvilakkus (lamps) usually consist of four parts:base (“keezh-bagam”), stem (“kandam”), oil container (“thanguli”) and the apex (“prabai”). The “thaguli” or oil container consists of V-shaped spouts to hold the wicks. These four parts are joined together with the help of screw threads. Lamps are also made in the shape of a branching tree, each branch ends with a small tray or bowl for the oil and wick. Kuthuvilakkus are manufactured in various sizes and also in the form of a standing woman holding in her hands a shallow bowl to contain the oil and the wick. They are used on religious and ceremonial occasions and are fashioned out of brass. The manufacture of bell-metal wares has always been the traditional occupation of the Pather community. However, in recent years, raw materials are difficult to procure; tin, for example, has become costly and scarce. As a result, many of the members of the Pather community have abandoned their craft.

The characteristics of the Nagpur sari are the designs that are woven with the Nagpuri wooden dobby in extra warp. The sari is woven on a pit-loom and the raw material used is pure cotton yarn. Designs have their own names and are woven in stripes and checks with fly shuttles, contrasting the finely textured body with richly patterned borders.

An unusual form of embossed illustration that has been practised in India is nail embossing. In this craft form, the artist uses his nail as a tool rather than a paint brush. The nail when dug into the paper creates an embossed effect and many designs and patterns are created in this way. Flowers, animals, human figures, scenery and other subjects are all embossed in this manner. The designs created are either presented as a tone on tone embossed effect or they are coloured in to add greater variety for the purchaser. T. N. Mukherjee in his book Art Manufactures of India that was compiled for the Glasgow International exhibition of 1888 writes that "in many parts of Upper India an ornamental scroll work is made on paper by the finger nail which has been rightly characterized by Mr. Kipling as of the numerous examples of futile ingenuity for which India is remarkable". He then goes on to state that embossed nail work was sent from Indore for the Calcutta International Exhibition.

A fine example of folk art and the individual creative impulse is the Nakshi Chhanch - moulds made for rice cakes – the nakshi pithas. The village women of Bangladesh apply their creative impulse and talent to decorate the rice cakes made to celebrate the harvest. Drawing not only upon their imagination but on their daily experiences the women create the nakshi chhanch. Traditionally made of either clay, wood or stone the moulds are crafted in different shapes and sizes, each with different patterns and designs. Rice flour ground very fine in a dhenki is the main ingredient of the cake/pitha that is offered to visitors and members of the family to celebrate the harvest and the Bengali New Year. Flour is kneaded with water into a variety of shapes. Sometimes the juice of taal / date palm, gur /molasses, milk, coconut, ginger, sugar or spices are also mixed in. There is an endless variety of pithas and each one has a specific name. The more interesting versions are the bhapa (steamed) pitha, chitoi, pakwan pitha and malu pitha. Some of these are like plain pithas; steamed or fried. But in the nakshi pitha, the design is very important and the ingenuity expressed in designing the moulds in shapes that range from birds, dolls, fruits, conch shell, leaves and animals among others add value to the offering.. This folk craft is practiced mainly in Mymensingh, Comilla, Sylhet, Dhaka and Chittagong.

The legendary nakshi kanthas are the best examples of the embroideries of Bangladesh. Although embroidered kanthas are very decorative their chief motive traditionally was thrift and economy combined with aesthetics, the idea being to utilise old and worn out cloth by sewing them together meticulously with close stitches and embroidering them so that not a single piece of fabric was wasted. The idea was to strengthen old and worn out cloth so that it could endure further usage. The care and artistry with which the embroideries are made transformed the kanthas from their original state of patched up rags into wonderfully beautiful creations of design. Nothing embodies the tradition of women’s creativity more than the nakshi kanthas. It also symbolizes how women preserve, recreate and renew life forms. Stories are told of how women met together in their courtyards, to stitch the kanthas for family members. They stitched the layers together with borders in coloured yarn taken from the sari borders; this was followed by stitching the motifs which represented familiar items, ritualistic symbols or imaginative scenes. It is said that almost fifty different stitches have been used in kanthas.

As Gurusaday Dutt in his writings on Kantha said The name "KANTHA" signifies a poor man's wrap consisting of old used up cloth patched up and sewn into a single garment. It seems probable that patch-work kanthas constituted the original form of kanthas and that kanthas of a decorative "appliqué" type were evolved from this.... From this original sense of the term in which it is still applied, it is used now particularly to mean quilting of coloured embroidery made by the Bengalee women of all castes throughout the province for various household purposes. The art of the kantha furnishes an illustration of the wonderful patience, craftsmanship and resourcefulness of the village women. Dr. Stella Kramrisch has described a mythical story to indicate the origin of this art form. According to this story, there was a guru by the name of Kanthalipa (plastering guru). By caste he was a sweeper. He used to collect old rags and torn cloth which he found while sweeping. One day a needle pricked his finger; it hurt so much that he started crying. Hearing his wailing, a dakini (witch or spirit) appeared before him. "She reproached him: 'If you cry at such little pain, how will you be able to bear the pathos of rebirth over and over again? Kanthalipi answered her: 'That is true but I do not know what I should do, 'The dakini advised him: 'The sky is nothing but a great void in endless space. Between the earth and the sky is also a vast emptiness. While sewing the pieces of rags you should achieve unity of spirit and purpose with all living creatures in the world. The sewing of rags symbolises the use of all discarded things. To do this you need to consolidate your deep feelings and knowledge. Sitting in the void you will have to combine your thoughts and knowledge with the help of the needle of kindness. The pieces of rags sewn together to make a new cloth of new kantha will turn into a complete piece. Similarly all the universe's living things will be able to create their own entities.

Though its origin is uncertain, the kantha is an example of strange contradictions. An endeavour of thrift in as much as it is the re-use of old fragments, it is at the same time a product expressing the devotion and rare skill of the maker. Stella Kramrisch explains the patching of old cloth as "a symbol of unification" and "a restitution of wholeness", a domestic rite performed by women. Almost a recreation of order out of chaos, the kantha is an invocation to the gods, and a protection from the evil eye. As with other areas of folk forms the dating of the beginning of kantha embroideries must of necessity rest on inferences from folk lore, from ritualistic and literary sources, from ancient songs and the stories spun by bards, endeavours by present day researchers to establish origins of the craft from descendants of the embroiderers invariably brings a reply from the simplistic folk artist, “It is a very old skill; my grand mother’s great grand mother used to make such lovely kanthas. The word kantha has no satisfactory etymological root and yet it is widely understood all over the Bengal region as a multi-layered wrap or spread, stitched with minute needlework to obtain a thickness which reinforces the worn out cloth of which it is made.

Distinguishable forms of embroidery began to appear regionally, and just as the material varied depending on the loom cloth available in each district, the winter temperatures of each area, the influence of ritual and custom in household life, and the leisure time available to women of various classes, so emerged the types of kantha, from the smallest arshilata (cosmetics wrapper) to the magnificent ceremonial nakshi kantha prepared for the bride and bridegroom. Although nakshi kantha is commonly made by all women, the more elaborate ones are made in the western districts of Bangladesh, in Jessore, Kushtia, Bogra, Pabna, Mymensingh. Nakshi kantha embroideries all over Bangladesh have common factors in stitching, format and composition. In the structure of the kantha, its outer contour sets the border for the embroidery planned. The embellishment takes form according to the dimensions of the fabric, as a square, an oblong, or rectangle. Then follows its intended use, as quilt (lep), large spread (nakshi kantha), puja floor spread (ashon), cosmetics wrapper (arshilata), wallet (batwa, thoiley), cover for Quran (ghilaf), floor spread (galicha), clothes wrapper (bostani, guthri), dhakni or cover, ceremonial meal spread (dastar khan) , prayer mat (jainamaz) and pillow cover (balisher chhapa or ohar). The boundary of the kantha’s shape is perhaps the only constraint to the embroiderer, all else is left free to her imagination - to use language and imagery from the store house of memory and fancy. Women’s lives may have been circumscribed by their homes, but their minds were open to the world beyond. Thus in some older kanthas, are embossed figures of Company soldiers on horses, or Nawabs smoking hookahs. The kantha stitcher’s own dreams are patterned in the form of the sun image, of flora and fauna. Sometimes, the maker owned her work by signing her name or stitching a proverb on one side. In the centre of a large Nakshi Kantha was usually to be found a mandala, within multiple square borders. A replica of a temple, a place of worship or an icon would rest within the mandala. Many of the nakshi kanthas represent a mingling of cultures, with a Hindu rath and a Muslim tazia placed parallel or facing each other, or with a mixture of other religious symbols.

Embroideries have always been considered as a highly personalised form of expression influenced by culture, traditions and the local surroundings. Moreover, the tradition of patching and quilting textiles in the Indian subcontinent has a long history.

The Kantha stitch and the subsequent profession of embroidery became a common income generating option which could be pursued from home by women across several parts of the country.

Nakshi Kantha is a folk form of quilting old dhotis, sarees and other old clothes and embroidering them with coloured threads drawn from saree borders. The embroidered patterns depict elaborate and intricate floral, animal, human and other household motifs along with social and cultural scenes from Bengal in the 19 century. Kanthas serve primarily as bed pallets and as light wraps. Small kanthas are used as swaddling clothes for babies, depending on their size and use. Kantha embroidery uses the “dorukha” or double-faced character stitch. The embroidery appears on both faces of the kantha. The stitches are so skilfully applied that the details of each design appear in identical forms and colours on both sides, making it extremely difficult to distinguish the right face from the reverse

The making of the embroidered fan or Nakshi Pankha is as popular a traditional art as the Nakshi Kantha. Commonly used by the village folk as a hand fan, it is very attractive in design, pattern and colour combination. A product of artistic skill and ingenuity, embroidered fans reflect the aesthetic sensibility of the makers, as various floral, bird and geometrical motifs are cleverly sewed through. Embroidered hand fans are made of various material including cloth, bamboo, palm leaf, straw and mat. Individual names have been attributed to the fans, such as, Bhalovasa (love), Amay bhulana (don’t forget me), Tara phul (star motif), Sankhalata (conch shell pattern), often the central motif is a tall stylised tree with branches on which several parrots are seated, balanced on the two sides typical with elephants, facing each other, interspersed with leaves and geometric patterns.

Decorative, colorful strings, knotted together into a woman's braid or designed into hair buns, parandas form an important part of women' attires in Punjab. The tassels are highly decorative: red is usually used for brides, gold or silver for special occasions, and other colors to match the everyday apparel. The Nala is the drawstring that holds up the lower garment at the waist be it a salwaar, pajama/women and men’s loose pant or the ghaghra gathered skirt. They are elastic across their width and the net-like surface is patterned with motifs.

The Patiala nala and paranda were famous as they were more elaborate and made of fine resham, silk, with decorative tassels that hung low and could be seen from under the kameez, upper garment.

Before the advent of factory made nala and paranda this was a household craft with every woman twined, plaited and knitted her own and these skills were passed on from mother to daughter. While techniques varied the nala were usually made by using the sprang technique where a net-like structure was formed by twisting and twining the wrap elements. Twists made at the top automatically formed at the bottom till the rows meet. The ends were then knotted into either a round or square knot called the harad after the black myrobalam as it resembled the fruit and then were plaited from the knot into naliyan or fine braids.

Using simple basic tools of the adda/frame and karma -sticks this tradition continues in Patiala where craftswomen from neighboring villages make and sell the handmade nala to traders in the Quilla Chowk area of the city.

Continuing from as far back as can be remembered the fibre of hemp bark (nalu) has been extracted and processed in Nepal. It is used for a multitude of purposes including the making of strong ropes and bags, and the weaving of namlos - headbands to support baskets - and dumlos - used to tie or tame animals and many other purposes. Hemp, a tropical plant that grows to a height of about 7 to 8 feet is cultivated extensively in the eastern terai region of Nepal. Its bark is thick and is the raw material source of the fibre. It is also commonly called jute/ nalu fibre.

RAW MATERIAL The hemp is a robust, erect annual herb (1-5 m tall) which can grow in a wide range of altitudes, soils, and climates. The plant is probably most widely known as a source of narcotics but in fact it has three main products, each of which is locally important - these are:

white bast fibre from the stem;
oil from the seeds &
narcotics

The various products require different conditions for optimum quality. A mild, humid temperate climate, such as may be found in some hill regions, is best for fibre production. PROCESS & TECHNIQUE The green hemp plant is cultivated in a manner that is similar to rice. The diameter of its stem is about half an inch and this is the part that is used for fibre production, while its green and yellow leaves and side stems are chopped of with a scythe. Using primitive techniques the bark is fermented in order to convert it into fibre. The stems are made into bundles, which are immersed in water and kept down with mud and turf. The bundles are submerged until they ferment and start to emit an odour, at which stage they are pulled out and debarked. The inner sticks (sita) are kept aside and dried in the sun, while the outer bark - which is completely fibrous - is washed in water and dried in the sun. After being dried the fibre is ready for use.

Woollen namdas are prepared by the Pinjara and Mansuri community of Kutch. They are made in locally available desi wool. Impurities in the locally purchased wool are removed by hand and the wool is then spun and dyed in yellow, orange, red, maroon, blue, and black. The wool is turned into ropes by rolling it on the surface of an inverted pot. It is then converted into attractive wall hangings, horse and camel saddles, torans, caps, and floor covering. The dhurries are floor coverings made from wool and cotton textiles. The warp is always in cotton of 2x 10 counts, and the patterns are of horizontal stripes. Although the craft of making felted rugs originated from Central Asia, It has been carried forward as a legacy by the communities in Kutch, Gujarat. The Pinjara and Mansuri families in Kutch are skilled in the technique of felting. The base fabric of these rugs is made from wool, over which patterns are woven. The most unique aspect of the Kutchi namda is the unique inlay patterns. The namda pieces are often embellished with tassels

Floor coverings other than woollen carpets are known as namdhas and gabbas. Namdhas are made of felt and embroidery and appliqué techniques with dyed wool are used to embellish these. The designs are floral, geometrical, and folksy. This is a cosy and colourful handmade felt rug that makes an excellent and rather inexpensive floor covering in winter. These namdhas are very popular owing to the embroidery on them --- chain stitch in woollen yarn is done by hand with a hook or needle. A namdha is supposed to have originated during the 11th century when the great Mughal Emperor, Akbar, was on throne. Namdhas are generally available in 3 x 5 and 6 x 4. Rugs can also be made to order. Gabbas are floor coverings made out of old blankets. Appliqué work is often done on it. The colours used are muted, though warm tints are used. Gabbas are popularly known as poor men's carpet and are rated as a common utility article by all classes of people. Creative genius has evolved it into an artistic substitute for more expensive carpets. Druggets are made from cotton and woollen waste. The same carpet designs are used as they are made by the same weavers. Hook-rugs are also establishing themselves in India.

Ply-splitting, one of the simplest forms of textile structure, is a commonly used technique the world over for the weaving of animal trappings; in Nepal, however, it is attached as a headband or tumpline to the traditional carrying-basket, dhoko, which is carried by porter(s) on their back(s). The namlo is strong and firm, yet flexible, and moulds itself comfortably over the porters forehead. It is also frequently used as a back strap as it serves the additional purpose of helping to balance evenly the load on the back. These headbands are made of varied fibres, including allo, jute, and sisal or bark, though allo produces the strongest bands. The broad width of the namlo rests comfortably on the porters head; its importance can estimated from the fact that often porters are required to carry twice their own weight of load in the baskets that they lug uphill along sleep inclines. The Imperial Gazetteer of India (Provincial Series) on Nepal in 1908 states that:

The Bhotias carry enormous loads. It is by no means uncommon for a man to take two maunds, though one maund (8 lb.) is the regular load, and this has to be carried over hills several thousand feet in height where the paths are of the most primitive construction. The Bhotias always carry loads on their backs supported by a strap across the forehead....

Being porters - like trading and army service - offers a way of earning the supplementary income that is so essential in areas of scarce subsistence-level farming.

PROCESS & TECHNIQUE Ply-split weaving is traditionally practised by men in Nepal. The namlo is woven all across Nepal wherever loads are carried in the dhoko. There are many variations in techniques, yet most commonly employed method of weaving the namlo is detailed below. The procedure followed for ply-splitting is simple. The parallel plied warp strands are joined by crossing elements that do not interlace but split each warp strand in turn. The yarn is doubled and then folded in half - on an average the namlo is made of 12 warp strands, that are halved at their mid-point and folded into six strands. This is looped and the ends of the six ply cords are slipped on to a wooden stick or spindle that is sharpened at one end. For the relatively narrow initial and end part of the namlo a double-layered fabric of 2-3 cm is created.

The basic structure of ply- splitting is similar to plaiting in that the warp elements strands move diagonally down the fabric from selvedge to selvedge. The namlo is then turned over to the other side and the return passage is made with the darning yarn passing again under one ply of each of the 12 warp strands. This eventually results in a connected double layer with a v-shape pattern. The completed ply-split section of the namlo usually measures about 50 cm in length. The beginning and the end follow the same two-layer method in order to narrow down that section of the band that is attached to the basket; in spite of this the intrinsic strength remains.

Narayanpet is a town, 70 km away from Mahbubnagar in Telangana. The origin of the Narayanpet Saree can be traced back to the period around 1630 AD. The saree is a fine count cotton saree normally woven with 60's–80's yarns both in the warp and weft. Small extra warp geometrical designs are woven in the border with zari/art silk. These sarees are woven on fly shuttle pit looms fitted with the lattice dobby. Various types of colourful silk saris, with intricate brocade work in silk and zari, are woven at Narayanpet. As the silk threads are not of a very high count, the saris are both light-weight and festive.

The sources of natural dyes are flowers, berries, roots, rinds, wood, lichens, and the gall of plants which yield earthy colour tones of browns and buffs. Crimson and scarlet hues are obtained from the female insect, cacti and lac, which is found encrusted on the branches of some specific trees. Purple is obtained from the trumpet shell.

The British introduced synthetic dyes in India in the nineteenth century; the use and production of natural dyes began to decline from that point. Apart from textiles, vegetable dyes are also used to colour wood, mats, basketry, pith, ivory and leather. The names of colours prevalent were piyaji (onion skin), sumai (blue-black), basanti (yellow), asmani (sky-blue), neel (blue), badani (beige), sonali (golden), abir (red), and dhani (yellow green). Botanical Name Color Part Used

1. Acacia catechu Maroon, Brown Wood extract

2. Artocarpusintegrigolia Yellow Sawdust

3. BixaorellanaOrange Seed

4. PunicagranatumKhakiRind

5. Curcuma longa yellow Rhizome

6. Diospyros peregrinePink Fruit

7. Nyctanthesarbortristis Orange Stem

8. TagetespatulaYellow Petals

9. Acacia ArabicaPink Sawdust

10. Terminaliachebula Grey Ripe and unripe fruit

11. Rubiacardifolia Brick Red Root

12. Terminaliaarjuna Beige Bark

13. CeriopsroxburghianaSalmon Pink Bark

14. CedrelatoonaPink Sawdust

Some other key dye-sources are as follows:

- Yellow is obtained from root of the plant Morindapersicalfolia. The roots are cut and boiled along with salt; the resultant solution dyes the yarn an even shade of yellow.

- Brick-red is extracted from the leaves of the plant, Rhyncosatiasp; the leaves are ground into a paste to which lime juice is added gradually till the colour turns brick-red.

- Black is obtained from the plant, Leniagrandis by crushing the fruit. The fruit is boiled in water with salt till the solution turns gray. The yarn is then immersed and boiled in this solution till it turns gray; after being buried in clay soil for 24 hours, it turns black.

- Orange is obtained from the bark of Phyllanthusemblica, Leniagrandis and Artocarpuslakoocha. The bark of the three plants are combined in equal portions and soaked in water for 15-20 days. When the solution turns orange, the yarn is immersed for a few hours, stirred occasionally, washed and sun-dried.

- Charcoal-gray is obtained from the plants, Careyaarborea, Leniagrandis and Eugenia Jambolana when the bark of the three plants are combined in equal portions and steeped in a vat for 15-20 days. When the solution turns orange, black potters clay is added in 1:6 proportion. The yarn is soaked for 5 hours, washed and sun-dried.

- Red is obtained from Morindapersicalfolia by powdering the root and mixing it with water. The yarn, treated with mustard oil, is soaked in the solution for three days, wrung and dried in the sun.

- Red is also obtained from the seed of the plant, BixaOrellana where the seeds are soaked with turmeric paste and lime along with yarn for three days. Yarn is then boiled, washed off and dried. The process is repeated to deepen the colour.

- Dark brown is obtained from the plant, cocosmucifera from the coir, where it is boiled with a turmeric powder till it turns brown. The yarn is soaked for a few hours, wrung and sun-dried.

- Pink is obtained from Ceriopsroxsburghiana by boiling the bark with soda till the solution turns pink. Yarn is boiled in it for dyeing, after which it is washed and dried in the sun.

- Blue-black is obtained from the leaves of Indigoferasumatrana where the leaves are soaked in the water and fermented. A small amount of bamboo ash is added to it. Yarn is put in and boiled till it turns blue-black; repeated boiling deepens the colour.

The vessel type used for dyeing yarn has to be chosen carefully. Earthenware is suitable, but its porous nature results is absorption of liquid dyes. Each dye has to have a separate container. The best containers for dyeing are those made of copper or stainless steel; these materials do not react with the dye stuffs and are very hardy. Earthen vessels are ideal for scouring, washing and bleaching. Natural dye solutions like kasmi and neel can be stored in earthen containers. The size of the containers chosen depends on the amount of material to be dyed at a time.

Cost benefit analyses have shown that vegetable dyes are more economical than imported chemical dyes; catechu, the most expensive of the natural dyes is well below the cost of an equivalent synthetic dye. The average costs of natural dyes are 10-20 per cent that of synthetic dyes. If use of natural dyes increases, it will help in the revival of traditional crafts, based on indigenous sources.

The art of dyeing in Nepal has an ancient past. Historic evidence based on a study of paintings and religious and cultural records indicates that natural dye-stuffs were used not only for the colouring of textiles and yarn for clothing, but also for dyeing yarn used in making tapestries. The collections of costumes, paintings, and tapestries that have been preserved in the stores of temples and monasteries in Nepal bear evidence to this.

PRACTITIONERS Dyeing with natural materials was practised by the community of ranjitkars and chippas who lived and worked in Kathmandu Valley. In fact the presence of the chippa caste of dyers has been recognised by the Newari community of the Kathmandu Valley since the early part of the fourteenth century. These traditional artisans passed on their knowledge orally from generation to generation; there are few - if any - written records of their skills and recipes. Besides the professional dyers weaving and dyeing was also practised in many a home as part of the daily routine. As the tradition of natural dyeing was almost completely an oral one - and also jealously guarded by its practitioners - the techniques used varied not only between one region and the other but also between one chippa and another. MATERIALS USED In the past dyers used many different fruits, herbs, barks, and leaves to prepare the various shades of colours. Some of the more commonly used fruits and herbs were: harro, barro (hala), dhamero ko phool (flower of the dhamero), bark of the kafal tree, and pomegranate rind. To fix the natural dyes to the fabric and to allow greater absorption of colour and increase its permanence a wide variety of mordant(s) were used by the dyers. Most often the mordant would be a metallic salt with an affinity with the dye colour and the material to be dyed. Some of these salts, like alum, were found in aluminous earth or rock scrapings. Mordant(s) present in fruits and plants - including lime and the Myrobalan fruit - were also popular. Other popular mordant(s) used included beer and salt. Research by Bina Sreshtha in Dye Yielding Plants of Nepal (1994) indicates that over 170 plants possessing dye-yielding properties have been short-listed for use in Nepal. The unique topographical layout of the country and the varied vegetation in its different climatic zones (tropical, sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine, and alpine), determines some form of stratification for different species of dye-yielding plants, and provides opportunities for further study. With experimentation a whole new world of colours using natural dyes can be opened up.

COTTON & SILK (YARN & FABRIC)

The best known and the most commonly used Nepali natural dye is madder (Rubia cordifolia Linn., (majitho) which yields colours ranging from orange-gold to deep red and light pink. The importance of madder for dyeing, both domestically and commercially, is indicated by the fact that the Sherpa word for 'dye' in general is tsoe, a word that is used interchangeably for madder; all other dyes have their own specific names. Traditionally, madder root, extracted mainly in the autumn months, is crushed and dried, mixed with an alum mordant, and used to dye the robes of Buddhist lamas. Its importance is indicated by the fact that in the nineteenth century it was bartered between the Tibetans and Nepalese in exchange for borax and rock salt.
Also popular as a natural dye is the brown shade used for the dyeing of the commonly worn kogita textile. Traditionally, the colour of this light brown fabric is obtained from a species of the betel nut (higoye), the buds of the naranpati tree, ram tilak colours, and red clay, all infused in a copper vessel called phosi. The mordant used to make the brown dye for the kogita fabric permanent is an extract of citrus fruits such as lemon. The use of the copper phosi plays an important part in the dyeing process as the metal helps in brightening the colour(s) derived.
The dye around which the most myths, traditions, and legends are built is the washi, a dark blue dye. A unique example of rock-dyeing, the washi is traditionally obtained in the form of hard clay from the Pharping area. This rocky substance is finely powdered, mixed with water, and preserved in earthen jars for several months. Often, the earthen jars in which the deep and rich blue colour brewed were preserved by the ranjitkars inside their homes - the chhipako ghyampo or the ranjitkar's blue washi earthen jar was thus a long-standing tradition among the dyers in the Katmandu Valley. This clay jar has come to possess a ritual significance among the dyers as it was regarded as a symbol of 'Bhairab', the terrifying form of Lord Shiva. Worshipped by the dyer community during the dasain festival, special tributes are paid on the day of bijaya dasami, with the prasada or auspicious offering being made in the form of threads that are distributed to family, relatives, and friends. These earthen jars, traditionally a common sight in the Humata, Jaisidewal and Majipat localities of Katmandu and the Tangal and Sougal toles of Lalitpur, are now rare.
The bark of the gular tree (Ficus glomerata Roxb) is used in preparing a deep black dye.
In the Mustang region, the tinchu plant yields a pink and yellow colour, while the higway nut is traditionally boiled in water for 2 to 3 hours to yield a reddish saffron colour. Various other naturally occurring dyes made from locally available plants like padmachal, the bark of the okhar, walnuts, and the roots of the chulthe amilo are tradition dyes in this area.
The bark of the soap nut plant, ritha (Acacia concinna DC), which grows in parts of the eastern, central, and western regions of Nepal has been used for dyeing and tanning fishing nets for generations. When an infusion of its leaves is combined with turmeric (haldi) it yields a green dye.
The asuro (Adhatoda Vasica Nees) or Malabar nut is used for dyeing coarse cloth yellow; in eastern Nepal, the leaves of the lodh (Symploc Spicata roxb) are powdered and used to make a yellow dye.
The bark of the English Yew (dhangre salla) is used in Nepal to produce a red dye; it is also used by the Brahmin caste of Hindus for marking their foreheads with their caste marks.

LEATHER For dyeing leather, the yellow layer of the chutro plant (Berberis asiatica) a deciduous shrub is used. The thick stem of the thorny shrub is stripped and its green chlorophyll layer is removed with a knife. The interior yellow stem is scraped off and collected. It is then rubbed vigorously in water and this yields a yellow extract that is used to dye leather hides. The chutro shrub grows from 1,900-3,000m in areas that include Chepuwa and Tinjurey in the Koshi region, and Dhartigaon, Daman, and Ranipauwa in central Nepal. WOOL Dyeing of wool yarn with natural colours has been an age-old tradition in Nepal. With the influx of refugees from Tibet and the introduction of Tibetan carpet-weaving, natural dying of wool received an added impetus. Tibetan refugees and Nepalese citizens dwelling in the northern frontiers are considered exceptionally dextrous in preparing and using natural dyes. The natural dye is fast and durable and evidence can be seen in the carpets that are on display in museums all over the world.

Traditionally, in Nepal, the dyeing of ram wool used for making the galaincha woollen carpets was done with a mineral blue dye known locally as ramje. The process of dyeing followed in the northern extremes of Nepal is arduous and complicated and has remained unchanged till today. The mineral clay that yields the dye is found in both the Mustang area and in western Nepal; it is extracted and powdered, boiled with local beer (jand) in a copper vessel, and then mixed with goat dung. This solution is allowed to ferment for about a month. Through this fermentation process a blue dye is obtained.The woollen yarn to be dyed is first cleansed with warm water to remove all impurities and then infused in the dye bath. The duration for which the wool is soaked in the dye solution determines the depth of the blue shade that is obtained. If a very light shade is to be imparted, the wool needs to be dipped only for a few minutes, whereas a deep-blue colour requires a half-hour soak. On being taken out of the dye bath, the wool is hung on wooden poles to dry in the sun and wind. The colour obtained is permanent.
For a yellow dye, a flower that blooms in the Jomson and Marpha regions of the Mustang district is used. The flowers are collected, dried in the sun, and powdered. The powder is boiled with water, yielding a yellow dye. Prolonged soaking in the dye bath imparts a deep yellow colour, after which the wool is dried in the sun.
The bark of the okhar tree is used in dyeing wool brown; this natural dye is traditionally used by radi-makers.
The bark of the kalosiris (Albizzia lebbeck benth) or Indian walnut that is found in eastern, central, and western Nepal yields a shade of dark red when mixed with an alum mordant.
The bark of the bhojpatra (Betula utilis D. Don) - the white Himalayan Birch tree found in eastern and central Nepal - yields a yellow dye when mixed with an alum mordant.
For the dyeing of pakhi wool, sour milk (mahi) is boiled and a red dye added to it. Wool is immersed in this acidic solution and boiled for three hours in a brass vessel; this imparts a red colour to the wool. If the wool it to be dyed black, it is boiled with an aqueous solution of common salt and black dye. About two to three kilograms of common salt are required to dye 20 meters of pakhi wool.
Some commonly used natural dyes - used for dyeing both wool and cotton - include the soma plant, whose roots yield a yellow colour, and the kilche roots that grow around Bagling, which, when crushed in a mortar along with the locally made wine and water, yield a shade of grey.

SOME INTERESTING USES OF NATURAL DYES

The bhringraj (Eclipta alba Hassk) or daisy flower that grows all over Nepal is used not only for dying cloth black but also for imparting a rich black when the body is tattooed.
The root of the bhanta plant (Geranium nepalensis Sweet), which grows in the temperate Himalayas is used both as a red dye for textiles and for colouring medicinal oils.
The sigada (Trapa bispinosa Roxb.) is used for making red powder that is used during festivities.

A CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVE Traditionally, there existed in Nepal a wealth of knowledge on the use of plant and mineral matter, not only for dyeing, but also for medicinal and other purposes. However, in the last few decades due to the increasing import of chemical dyes, the traditional art of natural dyeing was almost completely wiped out. In response to renewed interest, strenuous efforts are now being made to create a revival of this languishing art.

The discovery of the first synthetic dyes in 1856 and their subsequent introduction into undivided India by the British had disastrous consequences. It led to the rapid decline in the use and commercial production of vegetable dyes. By 1861 the formula for alizarin, a synthetic dyestuff, replaced the vegetal madder root for all shades of red. Chemical indigo was developed in Germany in the beginning of the twentieth century, after 12 years of research it was simply a matter of time before it entered with similar negative consequences for natural indigo. Thus it took barely a hundred and twenty-five years to eliminate almost all traces of natural dyes from the Subcontinent. The skilled craftsmanship of centuries was inevitably eroded because a cheaper alternative, requiring little or no skill, was made available in the captive colonial market. Dr N N Banerjee in his report on "Dyes and Dyeing in Bengal" in 1896-97 recorded Dhaka, Rajshahi and Bogra as dyeing and weaving centres. Nesbitgunj near Rangpur, was known for satranjis of dyed cotton. Indigo vats scattered all over the country confirm that substantial vegetable dyes were still being used at that period.

Not only were huge amounts of fabric woven in Bengal, the area was also a prime producer of the indigo plant, from which the indigo dye was extracted. This natural dye was widely used before the advent of chemical dyes in the nineteenth century. In fact, the rich blue colour provided by the dye is still sometimes used for dyeing denim. Bengali dye masters had special recipes for producing the desired colours, just as chefs have recipes for achieving desired flavours. However, as was the case with the traditional handloom fabrics, indigo dye production also gradually declined. The problems of the indigo industry were principally a result of two factors. First, because indigo was a cash crop, the British administrators in this part of the empire forced farmers to grow the indigo plant in order to increase the administrators' profits. Unfortunately, the indigo plant is nitrogen depleting and thus exhausted the soil very quickly. The farmers received little real income from the crop since the British kept most of the profits, and in times of economic hardship, such as when the indigo price fell, they were unable to survive by eating their produce, unlike farmers who grew staples such as rice or wheat. Another reason for indigo's gradual disappearance as a dye was the unpredictable nature of the plant. Sometimes one farmer would have a good harvest, while his neighbour would not be able to produce anything. The combination of poor yields and the unpredictability of the crop gradually led farmers to cease growing the plant and moving on to other, more profitable crops.

Dr. Banerjee in his report on "Dyes and Dyeing in Bengal" in 1896-97 also makes special reference to the bright, colourfast fabrics of the tribals, particularly the Mughs of Cox's Bazaar. Natural dyes have been used in wooden toys, mats and basketry, ivory, pith and all kinds of decorative paintings but its real affinity is to textiles, be it cotton, wool, rayon or silk. Names like piyaji, surmai, basanti, asmani, nilambari, sonali, abir and dhani, dominated the world of colours in Bengal. Bangladesh has a rich repository of dye producing plants which yielded an initial set of fifteen colourfast dyes within a very short time. However, an extensive field survey carried out across the country indicated that the pernicious influence of synthetic dyes had all but eliminated this indigenous craft. Only in some of the tribal areas, nominal amounts of vegetable dyes continue to be used. Training courses conducted across the country, workshop and exhibitions held over a two year period as well as wide media coverage enabled the reintroduction of natural dyes. Since then the emphasis has been shifted from research to greater dissemination of the dyeing skills and extensive cultivation of dye yielding plants, particularly the cultivation and extraction of natural indigo. Fifteen additional colours have been added to the existing range bringing the total to thirty standardised shades, which singly, or as compound colours, yield a wide variety of colourfast dyes. TECHNIQUE AND PROCESS The appliances for dyeing are very basic and simple. The dye house itself can be just a spacious shed with sufficient light and circulation of air. A verandah for drying the dyed yarn in the wet season is most helpful although printing on many days is not recommended. Sun dried fabrics and fibers give the best results during production but aftercare requires them to be dried in the shade, away from the sun. Natural dyes react to certain types of vessels such as iron and aluminum ones. It is, therefore, essential to choose the vessel carefully. Earthenware is acceptable but since they are porous they absorb the liquid dyes. So each dye has to have its separate vessel otherwise one color will affect another. The best results are obtained from copper or stainless steel containers; these do not react to dyestuffs and are very hardy. For scouring, washing and bleaching large gamlas (earthen vessels) are ideal. For storing natural pitchers are also most suitable. The size of the containers depends on the amount of material to be dyed at a time. They should be large enough to allow sufficient room for easy stirring of the material. The amount of water required for dyeing yarn is in the ratio of 1:20, therefore the vessel should be large enough to hold such a load easily. But during the last thirty years major effort has been made by individuals, craft development groups and government agencies to research and revive the use of natural dyes. Many dyers and weavers have been trained to make and use natural dyes. Craft agencies and textile houses have also realized that natural dyes are environment friendly, and this has created a niche in the market. The results are to be seen in the dissemination of knowledge of the use of natural dyes for textile and embroidery yarns, as well as for other craft items.

MAT WEAVING The weaving of mats of various sizes and shapes, and the making of containers, food-covers and lamp shades from reeds or strips of dried stems of coconut palm leaves, is practised in many islands. Cadjan weaving is also common. Cadjan is a mat made from coconut leaves sewn together with coir rope. It is used for thatching houses and for fences. In some villages, the bundles of reeds that provide the thatch for rustic resort cabana roofs, are stitched together by women using long wooden needles and coconut fibre thread. Since a roof made of thatch needs to be replaced or re-done often, it is more expensive to use the local product than imported roofing material. Sataa, a soft lattice mat woven from thin strips of dried screwpine leaf, is popular for use as a ceiling in many resort cabanas. On Kihaadhoo, in Baa atoll, women and older people can be seen at work in their cottages fashioning sataa for sale. Woven mats known as kunaa are now made only in Gaaf Dhaal - they too are found to be dwindling. (On Bandos Island mat weaving is demonstrated by craftspeople who offer the products for sale.) While documenting the weaving techniques and the plants used for fibre and dyes it has been found that a number of traditional designs have not been woven for many years. Collecting the raw materials, processing them and weaving a mat takes weeks and involves hard work not consistent with the returns.

COIR ROPE Coir rope is spun from the fibre salvaged from a coconut husk after it has been soaked in the sea for a few weeks. The fibre is pounded with wooden mallets to separate the fibre stands, and then dried. The strands are twisted and combined by hand to produce a strong coarse rope of the required thickness. OTHER COCONUT PRODUCTS Craftsmen use whatever materials are available - almost nothing is ever wasted. The Maldivian national instrument, the bodu beru drum, is made from hollowed coconut tree trunk and covered with stingray skin. The best ones come from Felidhoo Atoll. Coconut shell and palms are used to make toddy holders, woven palm leaf baskets and mats (sataa), folding carved Koran rests, wooden scoops for bailing boats, fittings for hookah pipes and woven trays for winnowing rice.