HISTORY Archaeological evidence indicates that gold and silver smithing was practiced from an early date in the areas of modern Laos that once formed part of the Khmer empire (9th-13th centuries). Evidence also depicts a picture of a society and court culture that was preoccupied with rank and in which jewelry was an important indicator of status. In the 14th century, Fa Ngum, the first Theravada Buddhist king of Laos, brought jewelers and goldsmiths from Angkor to beautify his court at Luang Prabang. Royalty and court officials used jewelry to show hierarchy and rank through the display of their gold or silver ceremonial betel boxes, costumes and jewelry, decorations and precious stones on their weapons. However, significant development of this craft did not take place until the first half of the 16th century, when skilled gold and silversmiths emerged at the royal court of Luang Prabang. During this period personal ornamentation, precious ritual objects and the Buddha image all showed outstanding development.

TRADITIONS AND MINORITY GROUPS The best example of silverware and jewelry is the work of the hill tribes. Silver smithing is still practiced by a number of ethnic groups, predominantly by the Hmong, the Yao and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities such as the Akha and also by some Mon-Khmer groups in the southern part of the country In many parts of the country the colourful costumes are decorated with profuse amounts of silver. Women wear torques, necklaces of gold, silver, ivory, bamboo and beads, bracelets, earrings and other ornaments. Akha The costumes of the Akha are distinct. Within each sub-group, caps and bonnets of various shapes and size are studded with coins and silver discs and plaques, and decorated with flowers, feathers and bright beads. Silver ornaments are sewn onto garments in the form of small silver hemispheres, tiny discs and buttons, and large circular of rectangular plaques of shallow repousse work with floral and geometric designs. Akha women also wear flat beaten silver torques and bracelets engraved with floral designs. Hmong Among the Hmong, silver, rather than gold, is profusely used and associated with every aspect of their lives. Massive silver ornaments are worn by all and express prestige and beauty. Silver is handed on to daughters by their mothers, as a part of their dowry. Among the Green Hmong, babies are dressed in their first silver torque before the umbilical cord is cut. Silver is twisted together with brass and iron in the special torques and worn in shamanistic healing ceremonies. Silver spangles are sewn on young women's garments and chains of silver coins are attached to caps and jackets. At New Year, new jewelry is commissioned and old jewelry repaired and cleaned in preparation for the courtship games played by young men and women as part of the festivities. Torques Silver torques consisting of thick hollow tubes, with tapering ends, are be worn in sets of up to five in graduating sizes. The tips of Hmong torques are either curled into a pair of loops, or hammered flat into long triangles and turned back. Narrower solid silver torques may be twisted or hammered into spiral or prismatic forms. Floral, geometric and leafy patterns are engraved on torques and pendants. These are sometimes enriched with coloured enamels of intense blue, green and yellow. The pendants serve a protective purpose. Bracelets Narrow open bracelets are engraved with shallow designs of flowers, buds and vegetal shoots. They are beaten flat and the open ends flare gently and are worn so as to display the ends. Earrings Hmong earrings include dangling silver spangle, silver circular rings beaten flat with curling split ends, earrings with dangling hooks with a rounded pyramidal button decorated with granulation. Some types of earrings worn by the Hmong are also worn and manufactured by the Yao. Yao The Yao are considered the finest metalworkers among the mountain dwellers. Their jewelry is worn by other groups like the Hmong. A typical earring is formed like an arrow bent into a circle. Symbols and patterns like the rainbow dragon/naga, yin and yang, butterflies, birds and fish can be found on the ornaments. Tai-Lao The Tai Lao wear massive bracelets of twisted silver cords. As a part of the marriage customs, a woman must have a gold belt and the man must pay for his bride in gold.

PRODUCTS THEN AND NOW Belts Some Lao belts and buckles, richly embossed, are composed entirely of panels displaying the twelve animal symbols. In Laos they include the horse (Sunday) followed by the ox, the lion or ogre, tiger, buffalo, deer and elephant. Less elaborate belts are fabricated from thick silver wire twisted into open grids of repetitive loops and spirals. Small lozenges, flowers or insects are soldered to the wires. Insect motifs may derive from traditional beliefs in which the soul takes the form of a firefly, ant or caterpillar. Ear Ornaments Heavy coiled ear ornaments with tapering tips still adorn the lobes of the minority people in Xekong provinces in southeastern Laos, as they have done in the past. Ring Rings are embellished with engraved floral motifs and gem stones. Bracelets Hollow silver bracelets are engraved and embossed with unusually free flowing vegetal motifs, bracelets of twisted hollow silver tubes and twisted solid silver cords, solid silver bracelets with lotus tips. Daggers Lao daggers from Luang Prabang have silver hilts; scabbards are embossed and engraved with a typically dense arrangement of vegetal ornamentation and flowers in lozenges and with the three headed elephant of Indra (the insignia of the royal family and the Lao state). Daggers of this type were employed in marriage ceremonies as symbols of protection.   Bowls Silver bowls with ribbed or fluted exteriors are ubiquitous in Laos - both the regular silver bowls (oh tum) and the silver stem bowls (khan).

DESIGNS, MOTIFS AND SYMBOLS The jewelry of Laos shows evidences of Tibetan, Chinese, and Indian stylistic influences. Many forms and motifs, such as the stylized lock and floral and vegetal decorations draw from Chinese decorative traditions. The designs and symbols have taken on new meanings apart from the original ones and often have double interpretations. There is rich symbolism inherent in traditional jewelry, for example, an item of jewelry may represent the universe in micro cosmic form and express complex human relations. The dragon/naga/snake motif is common and equated with the rainbow which links Mount meru, the abode of the gods, to the earth. The Naga is also considered to have tremendous protective powers. PRACTITIONERS Whole villages may specialize in a particular craft, such as making pottery or working with silver. Very fine work in gold and silver is often carried out in tiny places. In the past it was common for the client to provide the materials while the itinerant jewelers worked at the patron's home under the watchful eye of a family member. Many small shops are run as family businesses. Some members manufacture jewelry, while others attend to customers and other affairs. Jewelers continue to use traditional methods. The tools employed are extremely simple and often consist of a hammer, a few punches, some pincers and a bed of charcoal. Heat is intensified by blowing on the charcoal through a bamboo tube or bellow. Blow-torches attached to small portable gas cylinders are now increasingly employed for some operations. Large metal ornaments of solid silver or iron such as torques are often forged by the blacksmiths in the villages. These blacksmiths are considered masters of metal smithing, and skilled and versed in precise techniques. RAW MATERIALS Metals It was customary in traditional communities to perform ceremonies and make offering to the spirits or deities who guarded the local deposits of metals and mines in the hope that the deposits will be revealed. Laos has a tradition of working in gold, silver, copper, bronze and other metals. Horn and Shell Ornaments made from horns or made in the form of horns and necklaces of glass beads and shells are worn by Austro-Asiatic- and Austronesian-speaking groups of Laos. Silver And Enamel While almost all minority groups wear torques, beaten and forged silver and coloured enamel are more commonly employed by the Tai and some Tibeto-Burmese-speaking peoples. Beads Some of the ethnic groups of the southern central highlands still favour small red and yellow beads. Faceted flat orange beads have been found in the Salavan and Xekong provinces in south-eastern Laos. TECHNIQUES AND METHODS Many techniques, forms and motifs employed are originally from India, China and the Islamic world - transmitted through trade, diplomatic and religious contact. Anne Richter, in her book, of Southeast Asia, gives us details of both working and decorative techniques that are employed in the region. Beating and forging Solid ornaments such as torques and bracelets are often beaten or hammered into the required shape. Gold and silver, being soft, are beaten from ingots into sheet form and then stretched, curved and shaped. This, however, can often result in the metal cracking while being worked upon. By repeatedly heating and cooling the metal, this is avoided. Once shaped, the ornaments can be decorated using other techniques. Die-stamping stone blocks Designs are carved into blocks forming depressions in decorative shapes, and sheet metal is beaten from the back into the depressions to form ornaments. Often two halves of hollow gold and silver beads, for example, may be beaten into semi-spherical depressions and then soldered together. Wire work Wire is made from sheet metal cut into very thin strips. Wire is twisted, crimped or notched to create the appearance of fine beading and other decorative effects. Thick wire is used to form spiral limb ornaments. Small tight circular springs of very fine wire may form small wire flowers or even secure a gemstone or a small metal ball. This technique is frequently employed in Laos, where broad necklace or bracelet bands may be covered with small wire flowers. Chain-making Chains are made using various techniques. One common technique is looping elliptical circlets of wire. Each circlet is first crimped into a figure of eight and then looped together into each other. The arrangement of loops may result in a circular or angular cross-section. If the links are looped sideways rather than longitudinally, a herringbone pattern is achieved.

DECORATIVE TECHNIQUES The look of an item of jewelry is often enhanced using one or more decorative techniques. In South East Asian jewelry the following are commonly used: Filigree: In the open filigree process, light brooches, pendants, bracelet clasps and beads are constructed from delicate wire deftly twisted into vegetal patterns. Applied filigree: is very similar to open filigree. However, in this case the fine wire work is placed on a flat metal surface and either soldered or stuck onto the surface. The design worked is usually simple or complex vegetal-floral patterns. Carving: Soft metals like gold and silver of high purity are carved using sharp tools. Chasing: This technique chasing is used to refine the design on the front of the work by sinking from the front side. The metal creates the appearance of raised surface decoration by depressing the background. Indented patterns are made by cutting into or beating back some areas of the front surface. Chasing cannot produce very pronounced effects without destroying the integrity of the object, so it is often augmented using embossing or repoussage. Embossing and Repoussage: IThe malleable metal is ornamented or shaped by hammering from the reverse side to form a raised design on the front. Engraving: Shallow patterns are cut into a metal surface by a tool with a fine sharp tip Granulation: Tiny metal granules or balls are applied to a plain surface, often in scrolls, rows and geometrical pattern such as triangles. The spherical forms are created by surface tension when tiny fragments of metal or wire are heated on a charcoal bed. When cool the balls are arranged and secured with resin adhesive. A very small quantity of solder is used and then, as for filigree work, the ornament is subjected to a very carefully applied burst of heat. Open work: Sheet metal is pierced or punched to create holes of various shapes and sizes. An entire ornament such as a brooch or pendant may consist of leafy or lacy openwork. Punching: Indented motifs, usually on a border, are achieved by gently hammering with a tool whose metal tip bears a pattern. Gold and silver plating and gilding: Creating the effect of a gold or silver surface on an ornament of less valuable and usually more robust metal, including the application of leaf gold or gold sheet, which was glued to the ornament, then polished or burnished to create a smooth unified surface. Setting gem stones: Stones are box-set rather than held in claws. The box is soldered on, and the rim was pressed gently inwards over the edge of the stone to secure it. Since most stones were of an irregular shape, the box was often made to follow their contours. In some items of the box was filled with resin and the precious stones were stuck into the resin before it hardened. Colouring and staining Silver: The pattern and texture of silver is sometimes enhanced by blackening or darkening the ornament with pastes made from plants or a sulphur preparation which reacts with the silver to create a black or brown colour. The surface is then polished, and contrasts with the dark colour remaining in depressions. Gold: Gold alloys are sometimes given a red stain or transparent coating by repeated chemical cleaning, drying, very gentle heating, and submersion of the item in chemical compounds made from potassium nitrate or saltpeter, mixed with rock or sea salt and alum. Gemstones Gems are set to emphasize the beauty of the jewelry - they are valued according to their size, richness of colour and magical and healing properties attributed to them. Gem stones are worn for medicinal purposes were often set to give contact with the wearer's skin. Traditionally gems are not faceted, but left in their natural shape and polished. Bokeo province is known for its sapphires and sapphire mining

PRICE Jewelry is normally priced at the prevailing international price of pure gold or silver. To this are added the charges for workmanship. Gem stones are graded accorded to size, cut, colour and clarity, and are individually valued and priced. CURRENT STATUS Before 1975 Luang Prabang was known as a major centre for high-quality silverware. However, both gold and silver smithing declined after 1975 and has only recently begun to recover. From the early years of the 20th century necklaces, bracelets, earrings and a range of distinctive small containers for the storage of betel and home made cosmetic preparations began to be produced to meet the demands of the growing urban population. In recent years both the Lao Handicraft Association and the Design Centre Vientiane have offered short training courses in gold and silver smithing with a view to helping Lao crafts persons to develop new products and to upgrade the quality of existing goods.

REPOUSSE The repousse work uses thin sheets of metal which make the pieces light and economical. The crafting of the jewellery however requires a deft and highly skilled hand as motifs of flowers, creepers, ferns and geometric designs are created by raising the flat sheets into these varied shapes with the help of pen-like instruments which have rounded points. Facets are also produced by cutting and chipping these raised portions so as to catch the light which create a prism effect. The popular thick, round, hollow bangles made with this method are very popular, as are necklaces and earrings. MEENAKARI/ENAMELLING The meenakari / enamel work of Begumganj, Noakhali and Dhaka are popular in Bangladesh. Enamelled products are seeing a revival and products with delicate designs and colours are being combined with stone setting to create an exquisite effect. In the art of enamelling even the back of necklaces, bracelets and earrings were enamelled with beautiful birds, flowers and trees especially in kundan jewellery where large precious stones were set in thin sheets of gold and the pieces enamelled at the back.

SILVER AND GOLD FILIGREE Bangladesh has been renowned over the ages for its silver and gold filigree work. As jewellery, or in the form of decorative articles, Dhaka was an established and famed centre of filigree workmanship with a superior form of filigree known as manila produced in the seventeenth century. As filigree work of gold and silver wires became very popular the jewellers of Dhaka became renowned for their skill and their reputation for making pieces that gave an illusion of delicacy and fragility, in spite of being quite heavy, because of the lacy patterns of the filigree works spread all over. PROCESS AND TECHNIQUE Filigree requires a very delicate working with twisted gold or silver as the base. Wires are drawn from these two precious metals and pressed into different forms and shapes. In the pre-machine days the silver or gold ingots were beaten on an anvil and lengthened into long wires, which were then twisted and flattened. Today the jewellers use various tools and machines. The gold or silver instead of being beaten on the anvil is now passed through a roller and pulled hard with the help of pliers again and again, until it turns into a very thin piece which is then passed repeatedly through a jantri, which has holes of different dimensions, and pulled hard until the piece turns into a long thread-like wire. This wire is then turned and twisted into various loops and shapes. These lacy trellis-like shapes are then attached either to one another with interlocking tendrils or soldered to other surfaces which forms the base to hold these airy and delicate motifs. Small articles are moulded directly into the different designs without losing any part of their delicacy. Many petalled flowers, rosettes, leaves, ferns, creepers, butterflies, small faceted hemispheres and gold discs are among the many motifs interlinked with web-like gold and silver wires. Exquisite necklaces, bracelets, earrings and hairpins are wrought in a profusion of patterns. Other filigree articles of popularity are the silver containers - the gulabpash (for rosewater), attardan (for perfume), pandan (for betel nut) and toilet boxes of a variety of shapes and sizes.

GOLD JEWELLERY Apart from filigree, Dhaka is well-known as the centre of gold jewelers. Jhumkas and karnaphool (earrings), kangans (bangles), and baslis (necklaces) of all types are made with a minimum amount of gold, making them light yet ornate. Pink pearls, exclusive to Bangladesh, are used extensively in gold settings. SILVER JEWELLERY It is silver (rupa/chandi) which has been valued from the earliest time for its adaptability, lustre and moon-like brilliance. Silver vessels for eating, drinking and for use on ceremonial and festive occasions have always been very popular among the wealthy. At present due to the enormous hike in prices of gold, silver has become a preferred medium for jewellery. Gold-smiths work with both gold and silver in the same workshop. The light and charming designs of silver ornaments combine traditional styles with modern ideas. Silver has always been valued not for jewellery but also for products used on ceremonial and festive occasions. Of these, the Atardan and Gulab-pash (containers of essence and rose water) made by Dhaka jewellers in the filigree method, have continued to be proud possessions of various households.

TRIBAL JEWELLERY The tribal people of Bangladesh, the Chakmas, Murong, Mro, Garo, Hajong Khasia, who live in the eastern and north-eastern borders, have been using large amount of silver ornaments since early times. Though the design of these Hansuli, Mal, Kartha etc. are almost similar to those used in the other parts of the country, yet they often are very heavy and use much more metal than elsewhere. The use of gold ornaments is a rarity amongst them. PINK PEARL The natural pink pearls with their delicate pink sheen are a speciality of Bangladesh - in fact it is claimed that this variety cannot be found anywhere else in the world. Though not available in large sizes, their sheen and colour lend them an unusual beauty which is enhanced by the quality of setting and design. Collected by the nomadic Bede tribe, these sweet water seed pearls are found within their small shells in the Haors and Beels swampy areas of Mymensing and Comilla. The tribals, well known snake catchers, often pick the immature shells before the pearls have reached full maturity, thus fetching a much lower price.

TRADITIONAL JEWELLERY Traditional jewellery includes a range of pieces that are specifically meant for different parts of the body - be it toe rings, a girdle clasping the waist, or a hair pin. Particular sets of jewellery or individual pieces are used strictly on ceremonial occasions or for specific events. Bridal jewellery is dominant in this category - it is unthinkable for a bride not to have jewellery, for it functions as a blessing for the marriage and a wish for fertility and abundance.

SYMBOLISM Nepalese jewellery is extremely symbolic - every aspect of every piece of jewellery signifies something. The form, the shape of the parts, the materials, the abstract and non-representational patterns, and the representational imagery all convey specific meanings drawn from a vast pool of historical concepts, cultural beliefs, and current notions. Some symbols are simple and direct, understood by everyone; others are part of the more esoteric Hindu and Buddhist iconography; and some are very ancient, pre-dating the advent of the great religions and major cultures. For the Nepalese woman who wears the jewellery imbued with symbols, the details are not necessarily clear or precise; they are, however, part of a much larger subconscious context. For example, red bead necklaces, strung and restrung by women of different cultural, religious and social orbits in Nepal, often contain a solitary white bead, usually placed close to the tied ends. In Buddhist iconography, white is the colour of Vairocana, one of the five Dhyani-Buddhas, who occupies the centre in the mandala, essentially a diagram of the universe. Furthermore, white is the colour of the sacred shank shell, a ritual implement in both Hinduism and Buddhism and one of the 'eight auspicious symbols'. Shells are often worn as protection, and some jewellery pieces are made of shell material; a white bead can be a substitute for a piece of shell. The little piece of white glass added to a necklace thus imbues it with the spirit of the divine, and at the same time solicits divine protection. The notion of purity symbolised by the colour white must not be overlooked here; the white bead in the red necklaces may also express the purity of the married woman. Other materials highly valued for their colour such as coral and turquoise, are imbued with symbolic content.

MATERIALS With their many available choices for jewellery materials, the Nepalese have preferred metals regarded as most precious by other societies as well. Judging by old photographs and the accounts of old people, gold and silver were worn in abundance at the beginning of the twentieth century. The inclusion of stones was more unusual. As the popularity of red glass indicates, colour was and is an important consideration.

PROCESS The straw shoes are made up of two pieces: an upper part and a sole. While the front and heel sections are made up separately, three plaited bands of straw are stitched together to form the approximately 3 cm thick sole. To weave the upper part, two-ply warp strands of straw are stitched in and looped around the outer edge of the sole. These warp strands are kept in place by straw strands all around for several rounds. The shape of the shoe is maintained by varying the thickness of the straw weft. The shoe is finished with a row of sisal-strands. The jute shoes are constructed in a similarly to the straw shoes; however, in these the sole is made up of three to four thick, jute-wrapped straw bundles that are wrapped, coiled, and interlaced rather than plaited. The bundles are tapered to form a neat point at the toe.