Crafts – Page 4 – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage

The wood craft of Dharmsala is based on the Tibetan craft of wood carving. The products made include interiors of homes, architectural elements, statues, altars, boxes and musical instruments. The wood usually used are the khari, chilpine and other softwoods; the selection of the wood to be used is based on its plasticity, ease in carving and durability. The painting, lacquering and varnishing of the wood is an equally specialized task with its distinct colour scheme and style of Buddhist monasteries. The tools used are traditional and made locally from the bamboo fret saw, the bah, that is used to remove wood along the drawn pattern . with hammers, mallets, fine chisels and files.

Although less than five percent of the country's land is under forests, the material available to Pakistan's wood-craftsmen is of considerable variety. While the forests of mangrove-like trees in the coastal areas mostly provide firewood, date palms, babul (acasia arabica), farash, kikar and papal (ficus religiosa) scattered all over the sandy plains have traditionally yielded raw material for wood-craftsmen. In the hill tracts of Balochistan and the Northern Areas are found fruit trees and forests of deodar, pines, walnut, oaks, birch and willows. But by far the largest source of wood are the irrigated plantations of shisham (dabergia sirsco) and mulberry. The shisham plantations vary from large forests in Chhangamanga and Chichawatni (Sahiwal district) to rows of trees along the roads and watercourses. For each variety a different craft has been evolved.

In the first half of the twentieth century the use of ornamental wood panels in buildings declined under pressure of demand for more functional structures and the possibilities of speedier construction offered by bricks, mortar and cement. But the last quarter-century has witnessed a revival of interest in breaking the drabness of concrete walls and ceilings with carved wood panels, and richly carved wooden doors and windows are back in fashion. A far more extensive use of the wood carver's skill has been in furniture making. The oldest surviving style was evolved by the early craftsman of the Northern Areas who created massive pieces - beds, chests, chairs, stands for water-pitchers and oil-lamps, spoons etc. So irresistible is the attraction of carved woodwork that, in order to satisfy the demand of people who cannot afford to pay for walnut, craftsmen in the Punjab plains have taken to carving on hard and cheaper wood like shisham. Chiniot is the traditional home of such workers but one can find smaller groups in almost all major towns near the markets. No doubt they sometimes succeed in carving motifs and patterns traditionally associated with walnut but they know that shisham cannot be given the soft texture on creation of variety in form and designs of surface decorations. Thus one finds tables in numerous shapes: the tops may be rectangular, square, circular, polygonal, or palm-shaped, and they may rest on four straight legs or on a single pillar. A recent innovation from villages around Faisalabad is the setting of tables of different heights into a bigger one, all with carved tops and legs. Another recent example of craftsmanship is the creation of table stands which look like intertwined snakes of different sizes. These collapsible legs, crafted from a single piece of shisham, go especially well with glass tops or engraved metal plates or bowls, which do not cover the unique features of the stand. The common types of wood carving in Pakistan are designs in relief, in which the design is either sunk into the ground or the ground is etched high to stand out; round, in which the design or figure is totally detached from the background wood; chipping, in which a desired depth; incising, in which designs, mostly flower and creeper traceries, are cut into the wood without ground work; and piercing, in which the ground is cut away leaving only the design. At first sight it may appear that the technique of carving on wood has not changed much except that the craftsmen have replaced their home-made chisels, with straight blades in a limited number of sizes, with stronger, imported chisels, with straight and curved blades of various widths. But a study would reveal Pakistani craftsmen have explored in depth the possibilities of decorative carving offered by the natural colour and grain of the wood or to overcome the limitations imposed by such peculiarities. Traditionally they have adapted their workmanship to suit the nature of the raw material. There would be more of perforated work in black, opaque wood and more of relief work on lighter coloured wood. The patterns of carving would be determined by the staple and grain and tonal variations on the surface of the available wood. But there is increasing evidence of successful attempts to defy the impediment of grain to carving and also to reduce reliance on post-carving operations, like rubbing with sandpaper or polishing to smoothen out rough chisel work or sharpen the detail.

WOOD INLAY The use of metal strips and nails to bind chest planks suggested patterns of decorative-cum-functional nails and strips of metal such as had been seen on leather shields and animal gear. The rich rulers started matching precious metals or ivory but since there was enough of gold on tapestries and court gowns and sandals, ivory became the most highly prized material to inlay wood with. But the strength of the craft can be judged not only from the surviving specimens of the period but also from the present-day practice of inlaying wood with other materials. Inlaid furniture and decoration pieces are now being crafted with horn, bone, or plastic. Many craftsmen have learnt to use bone strips so well as to give the effect of ivory inlay. In fact, unlike the workers inlaying wood with ivory, they have found it possible to use bone to create bolder patterns. Notable examples are the setting of floral cut-outs in spiral-like combination on jewellery boxes, and the arrangement in perspective of cut-out pieces under the glass top of a table to give the effect of a sea-bed scene. Much more common now is the use of brass. Peshwar and Chiniot have been the traditional centres of brass-inlaid wood work. The Mohattan Tarkhanan (carpenters quarters) in Chiniot has the largest concentration of inlay experts. Whatever the material used the inlay technique is the same. First the inlay pattern is drawn on paper or card-board which is then perforated or cut to be used as a stencil for transferring the pattern on to the sheet of inlay material - ivory, brass or plastic. The impression of the cut-out pattern is drawn on or hammered into the meticulously smoothened wooden surface. Then the pattern is incised to the right depth and the inlay cut-out driven in. In case of linear patterns the worker lays strips of ivory, bone or brass in the grooves with one hand quickly followed with light strokes with small hammer held in the other. The patterns are varied. Articles meant for marketing at low prices carry simple designs - a single stylised flower, or a floral design surrounded by a circular or rectangular border. A more elaborate design takes the form of a central medallion with instricately laced borders and tughras in the corners. Sometimes the inlaid top of a table or the front of a chest can display the whole design of a finely knotted carpet, with stylised floral decorations, arabesque, tughras, and motifs arranged in borders, centres and corners. In many cases craftsmen are repeating a design over again but two trends are in evidence. One, the composition of the inlay design is changed to suit the shape of the wooden object. Second, every few years the craftsmen move from simple designs created with a few lines and curves to crowded patterns, and vice versa, obviously in order to keep pace with the consumers habit of seeking change from any familiar design.

LACQUERED WOOD In Sindh and the Multan-Dera Ghazi Khan regions of the Punjab the craft of applying lacquer to wood has been refined to a high level. A number of families in Hala, Kashmore, Khanewal and Dera Ghazi Khan have stuck to traditional workmanship despite sharp fluctuations in consumers' taste and the nature of patronage. The choice of colours and decorative patterns vary from place to place. Black, white and brown are favourite colours in Punjab and the designs are mostly geometric. The Kashmir craftsmen like floral patterns in black, red and other deep colour combinations. In Hala the dominant trend is to use rich primary colours to paint both geometric designs and floral patterns. Till some time ago lacquer was applied mostly to items of furniture used in villages - bed legs, low chairs, jhoolas (swings for infants) - but in recent times elaborately lacquered sofa-sets and chairs have found their way into the drawing rooms of the modern urbanities. Besides, the range of lacquered goods has been enlarged to include bowls, powder-boxes, spice containers, mirror frames, walkers, toys, imitation fruits and vegetables, etc. It is in easy to understand how the craft took root in the desert areas. The quality of the wood available was neither good for carving nor was its colour pleasing. The application of lacquer satisfied the rural folks' instinctive desire for different colour schemes as well as helped them to bring the beauty of flowers and foliage into their homes, the growing popularity of lacquered wood objects even when the environment has improved considerably is in a large measure due to the craftsmen's merit. The whole process is so dextrously conducted that one is amazed at the firm and calculated moves of the craftsmen's hands. For the most outstanding Hala lacquer work, done by families that have practised the craft for centuries, wood (kikar, farash) is first cut and chiselled into the required shape. The surface is rubbed smooth with sandpaper or pottery powder. The piece is then passed on to a lathe worker squatting on the ground. He rotates the wooden piece on the lathe and presses the lac stick in the required colour against it. If the ground is to have more than one colour the craftsman leaves spots blank which are coloured in subsequent rounds. After repeated coatings of lac the piece is passed on to another lathe operator who uses a chisel on the spinning piece to separate the layers of different colours. The piece is then handed over to the design-maker who chisels off the upper coat of lacquer to reveal myriad patterns. The speed with which a skilled craftsman carries out this delicate operation is unbelievable. Finally the object is given a marble finish by first rubbing it with a bamboo pen and then with an oil rag. The whole effect is created by craftsmen with their hands but the modest Sindhi worker chooses to call his craft jandri (rotation).

THE CRAFT OF has long been extant in this region due to the. This huge cluster in Kirt Nagar with over 50,000 to 60,000 craftsmen engaged in crafting wood furniture was set up in 1975 by the Delhi government as a jungle of sagwan wood grew here providing the raw material needed for the craft. Working in workshop on an assembly line craftsmen specialize in executing a particular stage of the craft process whether it be the designing and transferring the farma pattern image onto the wool, or carving.

An unusual feature is that the craftsmen sell the products in an unfinished and un-polished form thereby any faults or discrepancies in the wood or workmanship can easily be identified. This furniture is then polished, finished, upholstered and sold by upmarket showrooms. The craftsmen specialize in ornate carvings on Chairs, Tables, Side tables, Beds, Cupboards, Sofas, etc

Other areas in Delhi where carving and carpentry skills are available is in Panchkuian Road and Jail Road

Wood inlay is the process of decorating the surface of wood by setting in pieces of material such as ivory, bone, plastic, or wood of different colours. This craft is concentrated in Mysore and Bangalore in Karnataka where its roots can be traced back to a family by the name of Mirza Yousuf Ali who were pioneers in the field. The artisan smoothens the base of the rose wood and the design is traced and etched into the surface. The several components of the inlay are painstakingly assembled to match and fit exactly into the grooves and are then glued in. The design is finished by obtaining the required shades with several coats of polish. Examples of inlay work in Karnataka include the ivory inlay in rose wood and ebony in the Srirangapatnam mausoleum; the doors of the Amba Vilas palace in Mysore are also fine examples of inlay. Products with inlay include plates, boxes, bowls, cigarette cases, and figures of animals, especially elephants, which continue to be popular. The designs include floral and geometric patterns, landscapes, pastoral scenes, processions, and scenes from the epics.

Marquetry is a craft which has been patronised by the royals of Mysore. Under their patronage this craft flourished during the 17th century. A lot of exquisite marquetry can be seen in the indoor architecture of the Mysore palace. The height of the craftspersons' skill can be seen in various door and window panels. The most astonishing story of this craft community is that many non Hindu artisans are involved in depicting elaborate stories from Hindu mythology.

Unlike many other crafts which received royal patronage, the wood inlay craft of Mysore is very much alive. Many fine arts students are drawn into practicing this craft. The Mysore Fine Arts College offers special course in wood inlay. The back streets of old Mysore are teeming with wood inlay workshops. More than 5,000 artisans earn their living from this craft. The Regional Design and Marketing Center (a Government organisation) offers various schemes to help these artisans. The forests near Mysore are the major source of raw material for this craft. A number of timber merchants supply solely to the artisan community. The traditional use of rosewood as a raw material has become expensive and mango wood is often used as a replacement. This gives the artisans almost the same surface quality at a lower price. Also, mango wood enables the artisans to get nice grains. Designers have introduced MDF (medium density fibre) for the surface. MDF is a recycled board and the use of this board also helps in preventing deforestation. In much the same manner in which horns and bones took the place of ivory, plastic sheets are now used instead of horns and bones as the inlay material. This enables the artisans to make inlayed products at a lower price and gives them the opportunity to explore other segments of the market. These plastics are available in plenty in the Mysore main market area and are available in a wide variety of thicknesses (1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3 millimetres).

The dimensions and the scale of the products to be produced are given to the artisans as sketches and colours are mentioned on these sketches. The artisan cuts the relief painstakingly in various coloured woods. These are joined temporarily with watered Fevicol (an adhesive). The carpenter works on the surface and he also cuts grooves on it to fit in the spliced pieces of wood. After the spliced wood is fitted on to the surface, it is nailed together for some time and then is sent for pressing. This pressing process is done by machine and takes about a day and a half. Once the pressing is complete, the article again comes back to the artisans for polishing. Polishing takes some amount of time. It is done with fine chisels and later on with sand paper. Inlay artisans possess another fine skill, which is to scratch the surface and rub it with lampblack. This skill is used for producing very fine images such as eyes, eyebrows, hair, etc. Designer-artisan interaction is a recent phenomenon in Mysore. Artisans have responded to the market need without the help of designers. They have started depicting various scenes on flat surfaces and making framed portraits of famous people, gods and goddesses. Small souvenirs like key rings, pen stands and small boxes cater to the mid range tourist market. Jewellery is also being produced and is a potential growth area.

Mysore inlay artists are doing well and the quality of their skill has certainly survived. However, a greater input from designers and architects is required to help them in exploring new markets and using inlay in new and innovative manners. The beauty of Mysore inlay lies in the level of detail that is achieved. However, on the flip side detailing can also be regarded as unnecessary embellishment. If a greater volume of work is to be provided to the inlay artisans, they will have to be taught to do less inlay work while at the same time not to lose their expressiveness. Elaborate inlay worked products could be reserved for high-end markets. Karnataka artisans are known for their intricate carvings of rose and sandalwood. They employ age-old techniques to carve, inlay, veneer, paint, and lacquer articles in wood. Traditionally, craftspersons in Karnataka inlaid rosewood and ebony with ivory, some of the finest examples of which can be seen in the Seringapatnam mausoleum and the doors of the Amba Vilas Palace in Mysore. Today different types of wood of different colours and shades and plastic are used as inlay material to depict themes from Hindu mythology, secular themes, birds, animals, landscapes, etc. The usual articles made in Karnataka are inlaid furniture items, powder boxes, bowls, puja mandaps, wall hangings, etc. Karnataka is known for its ivory inlay work. The ornamentation, which usually consists of geometrical, scroll or floral patterns, is produced by setting small pieces of ivory in different shapes into the design incised on a flat surface. Mysore is the only city in the state where wood inlay is produced. This exquisitely delicate craft consisted hitherto of ornamenting rosewood with ivory. But of late the emphasis has shifted to securing a happy and attractive combination of woods of different natural colours against a dark background. A wide range of articles are made by inlay workers at Mysore, among which mention may be made of panels, treys, pegs, tables, plates, boxes, powder bowls, and cigarette cases besides the dusserra pageantry, landscapes, and pastoral scenes.

Punjab has its own wood work centers and each one has its own distinct style. Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Amritsar, and Bhera are known for their furniture and the carving is low relief with geometrical, floral, and animal designs. In Hoshiarpur, wood inlay work is done and the wood used is shisham or black wood, both as ground wood and with inlay. The articles made are tea pots, boxes, trays, table legs, screens, bowls, and chess boards. A popular and traditional product of Punjab is the pidhi, a wooden frame with an inside seat of woven jute sutli or cotton threads, twisted or untwisted. The designs are geometrical and the motifs are incorporated by weaving techniques. The normal height of a pidhi is 6 inches to 8 inches. With modern innovations they are raised in height, and made similar to a chair.

The wood inlay craftsmen in the beginning used ivory for the inlay work but ivory has now been replaced with bone. Plastic, different woods, shell and acrylic are also being used.

Wood is first seasoned and the design drawn on it with a pencil. The pattern is engraved onto the wood and the designs are carved out.

The acrylic sheets or whatever inlay material is to be used are cut carefully as per the design and after that set into the carved recess of the base wood with a mixture of adhesive and sawdust.

Beautiful metal inlay with brass or copper wires is also done. After inlay the surface of the wood is leveled and a thin layer of beeswax is applied to the surface in order to give it smoothness and gloss.

Intricately carved jewelry boxes, and other decorative and utilitarian items are crafted. Traditional techniques of decorative wood work, carving, inlaying, turning, and lacquering are being applied now to high-quality furniture and accessories.

There are many palaces in Rajasthan where the doors are inlaid with ivory in intricate floral or geometric patterns. The same craftsmanship is found in thrones, howdahs, and horse or camel saddles. Mirror-inlay work on wood is of Persian origin. Here the glass is blown by the craftsperson at the site of decoration and while it is still hot mercury is poured in to mirror the concave insides. Then the blown mirror-glass is broken into small pieces and shaped according to the pattern drawn on the wooden wall. These are fixed with plaster or lime.

Etikoppaka – a small, dusty village with a population of 12,000 in the Vishakhapatnam district is known for its wooden laccoloured objects. Practiced from many generations, this craft historically documented since the 1830s can be taken back to the time of the Bahmani sultanate. Etikoppaka craft has persisted and survived great hardships and its journey till today speaks volumes about the resilience of this craft form. In the post-independence period, shrinking local demand and low prices resulted in the migration of artisans to urban areas in search of mere jobs. It is even said that out of a total 225 weaving families, there was a time when only one old artisan and his wife were left in Etikoppaka. Post 1990, the introduction of synthetic dyes led to the initial distortion of traditional practices considered essential for the craft. The use of natural dye extracted from the now extinct local tree called Divi-Divi (Caesalpiniacoriaria) for tones of red, formed an important part in the production process. In the early years of the 20^th century in the midst of hardships and the inevitable extinction of this craft, one man saw immense potential and took up the challenge of reviving Etikoppaka. C V Raju – the head of the local landowning family took a keen interest in the local craft of lathe turned and lacquered wood. His efforts to revive the eco-friendly wood-lacquer process with a focus on natural dyes and efficient processes has brought the artisans back to life who are said to have shifted back to their original craft based occupation. Approximately 200 artisans belonging to VishwaBrahmin, Devanga, Gouda, Padmasali, Konda, Settybaliga and Kapu castes practice this craft. Lac and AnkudiKarra (Wrightiatinctoria) or Ankudu wood form the main raw materials used in the Tharini or the turned wood lacquer process. Ankudu wood comes from a soft tree also known as soft ivory-wood grown abundantly in the local forests. Branches and trunks of the tree are used to create different objects. The application of Lac was introduced by C V Raja. Lac is a resinous substance used to impart colour to the wood. There are two types of lac known as Rangeen and Kusumi, where the latter is considered to be of superior quality. The tools used are basic and consist of a planer, saw, cutting tools and hand drills. The wood is seasoned and cut to suitable length. The lac sticks are used to lacquer the items. The lac is further oxidized with natural vegetable colour and then applied to the carved wood piece turning on a lathe.Mogalireku (kevda leaf) is used for finishing and flair to the product. Lacquer work is an extensive process and can be performed either by lathe, machine or hand. Revival of the craft was again led to the identification and use of various natural and vegetable dyes with available colours ranging from previously available tone red to ochre, olive, turquoise and indigo blue. Etikoppaka originally consisted of wooden articles made for domestic and religious use. Moreover, toys, mythological figures and carvings are said to be exquisite belonging to the Etikoppaka craft. To tap the market potential, various home décor and decorative items like ornaments, cups, lamps, bangles, jewellery boxes, photo frames, cutlery, table ware, and oil bottles form some of the recent and popular products. These products have also found a good market overseas. Efficient technology and application of traditional methods have resulted in steady improvement of the Etikoppaka craft. However, to say that the problems surrounding the Etikoppaka artisans have diminished would be fallacious. Stringent export norms, eroded markets with cheaper non-original copies of Etikoppaka are some of the issues which require attention. Moreover, inadequate supply of wood threatens to weaken the stability of the artisans. The forest department imposes a fine on the artisans if wood is obtained directly and thus, the artisans remain dependent on middlemen and vendors. Awareness of the craft has led to various institutions of fine art of Andhra Pradesh, NID, and NIFT to get involved in the designing and further development of Etikoppaka craft. Moreover, various societies such as Padmavati Associates, EtikoppakaVanaSamrakshanaSamiti (Forest protection committee) continue to work towards preserving and conserving the existing and future wood stock required for Etikopakka.

Kutch is well known for its crafting of wood and lac turnery which is undertaken by a semi-nomadic community of lathe turners and carpenters called the Meghwals and Maniars. An indigenous lathe is used to turn and shape wood. It is then embellished with a vegetable colors and lac. Articles such as mortar and pestle, rolling pins, legs of tables and cots, cabinet and chests, dandia(sticks used in local dances etc are produced by the craftspeople. The tools employed for the crafting process are axe, wooden axle and lathe and iron bar support etc. Lac is obtained from an insect called kerria lacca and is in a resinous state. Amidst the rich heritage of art and craft in Gujarat, lac is another popular craft that has been produced across centuries. It is mainly used to make jewellery such as bangles, earrings and jewellery boxes, along with other decorative pieces. Gujarat's lac work on bangles is exquisitely embellished with various precious and semi-precious stones. They are famous for there embellishments and vibrant, exotic colours.

Surat is known for marquetry called sadeli. Thin and long strips of ebony, ivory, red wood, bone, and tin are stuck together to make the design. This craft was at one time used to ornament the doors of palaces and mansions; now it is also used to decorate wooden articles, especially boxes. This is not inlay work, but more in the nature of appliquè and involves no carving.

The process involves making a long belt of match sticks prepared by using fevicol. Thereafter the belt is cut in the required shape, i.e., doors, ceilings, windows, pillars, stairs, etc. These small pieces are moulded by giving light pressure by hand. Finally, all small pieces are fixed with fevicol in the desire shape. The cost of raw material is minimal but the entire process is very labour intensive and requires high level of skill for making such masterpieces.

This is a very popular craft in Karnataka and is widely practised. Rosewood inlay work is done using wood shavings of various shades and hues; chips or shavings obtained when elaborate woodwork is done is used for the craft. The pattern is traced into a piece of rosewood suitable in suitably shape and size. Then wood chips in differing shades of brown, yellow and beige are used to fill in the pattern. Elements requiring other hues are created by painting directly on to the picture. This wood collage is assembled very carefully as the chips chosen have to be inset neatly. The whole picture is then given a veneer of polish, making it rich and glossy. The themes found in wood patchwork include rural scenes, historical depictions, religious figures, deities and vivid examples of nature in all its scenic beauty.

Wood-carving has, traditionally, been the forte of the Nepali artisan - using the most primitive of tools they have, over the centuries, endowed the simplest of products with great aesthetic appeal without detracting from their utilitarian value.

DAILY-USE PRODUCTS Most daily use wooden products are crafted by scooping out the wood with traditional tools. Hollowed out objects like the canoe, mortar, theki (wooden containers for yogurt and sour milk), singmang (container for clarified butter), chauntho (oil container), gauwa (milk container), and ari bowls are been crafted from the wood of the pine and cedar. Lathe machines have been introduced recently for the making of hollowed and cylindrical objects. These are then smoothened with sand-paper and given several coats of varnish to make the surface smooth and shiny. However, some of the hollow wooden objects like the theki, singmang, and chauntho, as well as wooden mortars and bowls, are being replaced with plastic and aluminium products.

Theki: In carving a theki, a log of wood, preferably cedar, is rotated horizontally and a curved tool is used to slice the wood. As the log of wood rotates, it is scooped little by little. After the required depth is cut, it is refined further and the exterior portion is also cut, giving it the required shape. Thekis come in different sizes with little variation in their shape. They are used for preparing and churning the yogurt.
Singmang: It is believed that clarified butter or ghee can be kept in a singmang for several years without any preservative.
Ari: Bowls or ari made of wood are used in making pickles. Any edible item can be kept in such bowls.

FURNITURE, CHESTS, & BOXES Soft-wood - like chanp (champac), pine, and cedar - is used in Nepal to make furniture, chests, and boxes. Sisso variety of wood is preferred for carving because of its beautiful grain. Chests made of soft-wood were a traditional wedding gift from the parents to the bride. These traditional chests are slowly being replaced by modern metal almirahs or cupboards/wardrobes. Carved wooden furniture and chests are given a coating of turpentine oil or a mixture of light coloured rosin obtained from the pine trees to highlight the designs. PROBLEMS & INTERVENTIONS Traditional craftsmen are now affected by the scarcity of wood due to deforestation. The hard sal wood of the southern plains is rapidly being depleted. Although afforestation programmes have been launched, the requirement of wood far outstrips the supply. LOCATIONS Most of the wood-carving is done in Lalitpur and in the Kathmandu Valley.

The Bhutanese produce a variety of highly prized utilitarian turned wooden bowls, cups, plates, dishes and containers, all of which they use in their daily life. These bowls and containers come in different shapes, sizes, and colours, which distinguish the different uses that each is put to - a monk's bowl, a serving bowl, a rice bowl, or a soup bowl being common examples. Made from wood with the help of slow-revolving, pedal-operated lathes, these bowls remain unaffected by heat or liquid and are lacquered with indigenous materials. Often, the smaller tea or soup bowls may be inlaid with silver, which makes them even more attractive and also enhances their lasting ability.

RAW MATERIALS The lush forests of Bhutan have provided craftsmen through the centuries with a rich source of hard, semi-hard, and soft wood required to prepare functional and decorative products. The woods used include the chellum, etometo or rhododendron, maple, and kushing. Lac, extracted from the Rhus succedanea tree is used for finishing the turned wood articles.

PRACTITIONERS & LOCATIONS These articles are mainly produced in the Tashi Yangtse region of eastern Bhutan. PROCESS & TECHNIQUE Wooden bowls and receptacles are turned on foot-powered treadle lathes. The lathe is operated manually with the feet. Two people work simultaneously - one to shape and the other to operate the lathe. Some bowls and all receptacles are lacquered black or red with a substance extracted from the Rhus succedanea. This is the same substance that the Japanese use for lacquer, but in Bhutan the finishes are less sophisticated. Bhutanese lacquering is applied manually with the thumb. To obtain a high-quality finish, the process is repeated six to seven times; four or five applications are used to impart a medium-quality finish and two or three applications are done for functional articles of that are not particularly good in quality. Bowls lined with silver are used only for butter-tea or alcohol. Wooden receptacles are used as serving dishes for food and also as plates by the heads of the household.

PRODUCT RANGE

Thokey: Fruit BowlA traditional article, that is used during religious ceremonies and on special occasions.
Tsamdeg: Serving Bowl with LidThe Tsamdeg was originally used for tsampa (barley or wheat flour)The product originated in the north and extreme east of Bhutan where roasted wheat and barley flour comprised the staple diet.
Baw Dapa: Rice Plate with Lid The Baw dapa with a lid is traditionally used to serve rice in. The dapa is 10 inches in diameter and has a lid. It is used especially by lamas, monks, and dignitaries.
Dumchem Dapa: Rice Plate with LidThis wooden round container with a lid is traditionally used to serve rice in.
Gophor: Cup with Lid The gophor is traditionally used for drinking liquids like tea and soup.
Laphor: Bowl with Lid The laphor is traditionally used by the monastic community, for tea and soup.
Boephor: Cup The beophor is traditionally used for drinking wine, curry, or tea. People carry it on their persons, saving their host from having to provide cups when serving liquid refreshment. Men carried two cups wrapped in cloth plus a knife at the waist, while women carry one cup. It is wiped or washed with warm water.
Za Phob: Burl Cup It is the Bhutanese ceremonial cup of wooden burl with natural lacquer used to drink tea and wine in.
Samden: This is 1" height and 1"foot broad and is used for serving snacks in.

The prices of the products depend on the quality of wood used, the quality of the lacquer finish, and the presence or absence of silver mounting. CONTEMPORARY TRENDS Of late, under royal patronage, bowls are being made of ivory inlaid with silver. The availability of wooden bowls is rather limited, since production skills have traditionally been confined to a few centres in the country. The government has initiated steps for large-scale production of wooden bowls by training more people in the craft at the Uchu village in Paro, one of the traditional centres. Because of their attractive shapes and colours they are a favourite with tourists and have immense potential for export.

As with all the zorig chusum, shingzo is a devotional act, which links the craftspeople to their personal deities. For centuries houses, palaces, dzongs, temples, bridges and utilitarian items for the home and the field have been and continue to be made of a combination of stone, rammed earth, bamboo and local timber or wood. Timber is used lavishly in all structures for windows, doors, stairs, balconies, columns, beams and other structural elements and for elaborate decorative cornices. It is this lavish use of timber, which gives Bhutanese architecture its beauty, elegance and unique character at the same time making these structures highly vulnerable to fire and degeneration.

The techniques used by the craftspeople have remained relatively unchanged and even today the basic constructional elements for the building of a house are made by hand with the help of a few tools only. Buildings are not constructed according to a set floor plan but at the same time follow measurements dictated by the sacred scriptures. The carpenters plan and prepare the necessary building elements based on an understanding of the sacred texts and supervise the work when the construction begins. Massive Dzongs, Lhakhangs and Gompas, palaces, houses - some of which are built on mountain tops, sheer cliff faces, at strategic places -are erected without either a floor plan and most remarkably without iron, not even nails.

Common to every structure are the intricate decorations, woodcarvings and brightly coloured patterns and murals on wall panels. Carvings of Lord Buddha and various other deities adorn the walls and altars of temples and shrines. The common motifs on more secular buildings are the druk (dragon), Tashi - Tagye and various legendary animals (refer article on symbols). The upper stories of a building boast remarkable woodwork with paintings seen frequently on the frames of the three lobed windows and on the ends of beams. Elaborately painted timber cornices are usually placed around the upper edges of the structure, just below the roof and above doors and windows. Windows and doors are also normally painted giving the houses a very festive appearance. Floral, animal and religious motifs are mainly used as themes for the colourful paintings.

Timber is used for flooring, doors, windows, beams and ceilings in houses. Doors and windows are generally carved with traditional motifs. Very narrow timber window are found on the lower floors and larger elaborately painted timber three lobed windows on the top floor. Roofs are of made of wooden shingles kept in place with small stones. Large open breezy spaces under the high, shingled roofs, create the unique 'flying roof' characteristic, which is peculiar to indigenous Bhutanese houses. A single log of wood with ledges cut on one side serves as a staircase. Almost every house has a wooden altar with statues of the Buddha and the great gurus.

Wood work is largely practiced in Dharamshala, Himachal Pradesh. Products such as architectural elements, cupboards, statues, altars, picture frames, boxes, musical instruments etc are created under this craft from. Tools such as bamboo fret saw called bah, wooden mallet, sharpening stone called jamdar, chisels, gouges, metal pointer, calipers, template, files and sandpaper are needed for the production process.

The block makers' village is in Bora about 15 kms from Serampore, off the GT Road. Serampore is about 25 kms from Kolkata to the North, on the west bank of the Hooghly. Earlier known as Fredericknagore it is one of the few places in India that was colonized by Denmark from 1756 to 1845.

Though the origins of block carving are lost in the folds of history, we have examples of block printed fabric dating back to 2000 B.C. Evidence has been found that the art of dyeing fabrics was practiced in the Indus Valley Civilisation. According to the 1961 Census conducted by the Government of India, the craft was developed and specialised by the Suthar artisans who were traditionally carpenters. The document also mentions that the craft might have been adopted from Iran at the time of the Mughals and concentrated in Shikarpur in Sindh from where it spread to Gujarat. This is in keeping with the theory that the skill of block printed fabrics travelled from Sindh to the modern Indian states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Madhya Pradesh. The block makers of Pethapur believe that many centuries ago, women got tired of their white unembellished clothes and began using their bangles dipped in colour to pattern their garments. The carpenters noticed and decided to provide the women with various designs and so gave rise to the tradition of hand block printing on textiles. Most of the craftsmen engaged in this work belonged to the Gajjar Suthar caste who believe that their ancestors settled in Pethapur some 200 years ago. The caste believes it is the progeny of Vishvakarma, the architect of the gods¹. Like the hand block printers, block making is an endangered craft. These talented craftsmen, similar to so many other craftspersons in India, face the problem of situating themselves within the contemporary market economy, in attempting to create and develop products which might curb the widening divide between greater supply and diminishing demand. The block makers had a few prominent clusters in Pilakhuwa, Farukhabad and Ahmedabad which supplied the printers of the country. It is from Ahmedabad that the block carvers migrated to Pethapur, which today is the only remaining centre in the country solely making wooden blocks. It supplies to all the hand block printing communities from Sanganer (Rajasthan) to Bagh (Madhya Pradesh). In other centres, Pilakhuwa for instance, the block makers have applied their carving techniques to making wooden tables, boxes, photo frames, pen holders etc to broaden their market and continue their trade. Pethapur, situated 40 kilometres from Ahmedabad, is the only surviving centre of wood block carving. Blocks are ordered and sold directly between the printer and carver with no middlemen or agents. Either the block maker travels to the printing centre with his directory of designs on which orders are taken or the printer goes to the carver, either ordering from the block makers design repertoire or giving his own design layout.

¹ Census of India 1961:7.

Tools Ari / Karvat (saw) Bhido (vice) Dismis (screw driver) Farsi (chisel) Ghodi (wooden stand) Gotilo/ Thapdi (mallet) Hathodi (hammer) Kanas (file) Pakad (pliers) Panch (punch) Randho (carpenters plane) Shardi (wooden drill) Shighro (vice) Tankanu (graver/ chisel) Vansalo (adze)

Raw Material Wood Khadi (chalk) Tracing Paper Coloured Pencils

Process The wood is bought in an open market. The most common wood is teak (sag) or (sag saghwan) preferred because of its durability and resistance to termites and decay. It is locally known as (sag² patli). Despite its durability, the wood is soft and easy to carve. It is also fibreless so especially suitable for fine work. It is bought from the forests of Southern Gujarat.

When bought the wood is in uneven pieces called (wadh). It is stored in a dark enclosed space for up to one year. Once the wood is ready the edges are shaped with the saw, chisel and adze to give it the desired shape - oblong, square or round, depending on the design. The surface to be carved is filed and smoothened by grinding on a rough stone on which is spread fine river sand and water. The shaped smoothened block is known as (kaplo. The (kaplo) is now ready for the design to be traced on its surface and carved. For any design two types of blocks are carved today: the main block with the outline called (rekh) and the subsidiary or relative blocks for each colour called (data³). They are both carved in relief. The smoothened surface is coated with the layer of white chalk to aid definition and visibility of the traced design. The design is first drawn on paper. This paper is fixed to the whitened surface of block, held in place with nails. Using a fine tipped or pointed chisel the design is perforated onto the block. Once the design is traced onto the block, the negative spaces are carved or gouged using a variety of different shaped and sized chisels. If the spaces to be removed are vast, a hand drill is used. Once the block has been carved the block makers finish by engraving a nail shaped point, (mokh), on the right hand corner of the block. This enables the printer to precisely align the blocks while printing.

The four sides of the block are sloped, narrow at the top slanting outwards at the base where the design is carved. In the case of dense designs such as floral patterns or closely carved designs holes are drilled through the block to allow trapped air to release and thus ensure air bubbles don't smudge the print or spread the colour. These air passages are called (pavan-sar). The handle (chhado) is either carved from the block or attached later. The first is more durable and also more expensive. After the carving is complete and the block is ready it is placed in groundnut oil for a couple of days to season the wood and protect it from climatic changes and moisture. This ensures the block doesn't warp through repeated use. It takes up to three days to carve a block set of an intricate design.

BRASS BLOCKS

An alternative technique to carving in wood is blocks where the designs are created by attaching metal wires or strips to a wooden base. Such blocks are almost always (rekhs) and save the labour of carving the main block.

After tracing the design onto the (kaplo), narrow grooves are carved with chisels, flat in case of a geometric pattern and pointed for floral motifs. Strips or wires are then fixed in the carved grooves or dots as the case may be. These blocks are durable as they don't chip while cleaning as often happens with wooden blocks. They are mostly in demand by larger factories that mass produce goods.

Conclusion The future of the block carvers of Pethapur is uncertain. It is entirely possible that they will follow the other block making traditions and apply their skill to making products which have a wider and also urban market. This would ensure the continuity of the knowledge but it would be unfortunate if in the process the beautiful hand printed fabrics which India has been renowned for since the beginning of civilization become extinct.

²Tectona Grandis or Indian Oak. ³The Census of India of 1961 refers to the data blocks as datla 1970:14