Cire- Perdue / Lost Wax Metal Casting – Houshold Items and Utensils,
For generations, Nepali craftsmen have been making beautiful metal objects - ranging from ornate religious statues and temple decorations, to household vessels, pitchers, cups, and bowls - using the lost wax method. The focus of documentation has traditionally been on the unique bronze statues and there is comparatively little information on the production of simple domestic brass and bronze cast items used in everyday life created using the lost wax method. Household metal utensils like karuwa (water pot with spout), ankhora (water pot, bowls), kasaundi (rice cooking pot), surahi (wine jars), etc. are made by the casting process. They are mainly cast in bronze. The decorated ankhoras and karuwas are unique and the Karuwas of Palpa and Bhojpur districts are famous for their skill in decorating them. Faced with stiff competition from inexpensive, machine-made products, many of the craftsmen over the past few decades have switched to other professions and families that had once passed on these skills to their children have stopped doing so. Thus, the tradition of making these household products by hand is gradually fading away. Though hope lies in the fact that, if it can be afforded, most Nepalese prefer using bronze utensils - believed to be better for a health. Bronze maintains the temperature of the food kept in it, does not leave the taste of the metal in one's mouth, and is durable and long lasting. It also fetches a reasonable price when re-sold.
For generations, Nepali craftsmen have been making beautiful metal objects - ranging from ornate religious statues and temple decorations, to household vessels, pitchers, cups, and bowls - using the lost wax method. The focus of documentation has traditionally been on the unique bronze statues and there is comparatively little information on the production of simple domestic brass and bronze cast items used in everyday life created using the lost wax method. Household metal utensils like karuwa (water pot with spout), ankhora (water pot, bowls), kasaundi (rice cooking pot), surahi (wine jars), etc. are made by the casting process. They are mainly cast in bronze. The decorated ankhoras and karuwas are unique and the Karuwas of Palpa and Bhojpur districts are famous for their skill in decorating them. Faced with stiff competition from inexpensive, machine-made products, many of the craftsmen over the past few decades have switched to other professions and families that had once passed on these skills to their children have stopped doing so. Thus, the tradition of making these household products by hand is gradually fading away. Though hope lies in the fact that, if it can be afforded, most Nepalese prefer using bronze utensils - believed to be better for a health. Bronze maintains the temperature of the food kept in it, does not leave the taste of the metal in one's mouth, and is durable and long lasting. It also fetches a reasonable price when re-sold.
SOURCES
Maithil culture has its own language and rich literary traditions - as a part of this cultural and religious tradition, the women paint striking murals on the external walls of their homes, while in the homes pottery storage containers and internal mud pillars carry intricate designs. This (women's) tradition of painting and craft has been passed down for generations and the villages near Janakpur showcase this living museum on the mud walls and homes.
Paintings are often derived from Hindu mythology - they can be derived from complex symbols (sometimes with a distinct mandala-like quality), represent abstract figures (including hand-stencils, peacocks, pregnant elephants, and fish), or contain a narrative quality (representing religious stories).
TRADITIONS
Different castes and different regions have developed distinctive styles and symbols, which are passed down from mother to daughter. Traditionally, painting and decoration is not undertaken purely to create an aesthetic result but largely springs from cultural and religious motives. The act of painting, as a part of a ritual has been considered more important than the finished result; completed paintings serve as charms, prayers, and meditation aids.
Painting traditions vary from caste to caste. High castes, including the Brahmins and Kayasthas, have developed extremely elaborate, abstract forms, while lower-caste paintings, though simpler and more realistic, possess an energetic expression, and retain a strong sense of formal design.
The art of Brahmins and Kayasthas is closely tied to religious ritual, as exemplified in the making of aripana. To make an aripana, the women grind rice and mix it with water to make a paste called pithar. Using their fingers, they create graceful, lace-like designs on the mud floor of homes and courtyard. Colour is added with the blood red vermilion powder (sindur) in the form of dot-like patterns.
A large repertoire of designs are drawn on for worship of household deities, for rituals related to marriage, and for marking auspicious days on the calendar. Brahmin women decorate a maraba, a pavilion made out of mud plaster, on the occasion of upanayan (a boy's haircutting ceremony) with images of gods. On the occasion of weddings, Kayastha women pay special attention to the decoration of a wedding chamber called the kohbar. The kohbar is a room in the bride's house where the couple will spend their first four nights together. It is decorated with an ornate tantric design, also called kohbar, consisting of a stylised central stalk of bamboo (symbolising the male) surrounded by circles that are lotus leaves (symbolising the female). The kohbar also contains parrots, images of happy union, and turtles and fish, which represent Vishnu's incarnation and also male and female sexuality. Other images painted in the kohbar include parrots with bamboo, symbolic of the generations to come, Lord Shiva riding his bull, and Lord Krishna playing the flute in a kadamba tree, where he has mischievously hung the saris of the bathing maidens (gopis). On the wedding night, the bride and groom perform a ritual in which they apply sindur to the kohbar.
While the imagery of the Kayastha and Brahmin tradition is perhaps the more refined and religious in character, painting is done by all the castes. The villages around Janakpur are their liveliest at the time of the autumn festival of Deepawali. Just before Deepawali, women cover their houses with a smooth mixture of mud, dung, and rice husk. They form relief designs on the walls of the house and make decorations around the wood columns of their verandas. The night before Deepawali, when Laxmi, the goddess of wealth, is worshipped, they paint the house walls to attract a visit from the goddess. Pregnant elephants, symbolising prosperity, and auspicious peacocks are painted often.
During the dry months, women of all castes make large vessels called kothi out of mud, dung, and rice husk. These vessels are used for the storage of grain and lentils. Kothi are frequently built in the shape of turtle and fish. A typical kothi is square with five storage areas, and is called a panch (five) kothi. Often at least one room in the house is filled with large kothi that reaches almost to the ceiling. Shelving is fashioned out of mud, as are stoves for cooking with fire.
The art created by the women is transient. Rains destroy the mud and painted designs or in the spring, during a New Year festival called Jursital, paintings are covered over with mud.
INTERVENTIONS: MAITHIL PAINTINGS & THE JANAKPUR WOMEN'S DEVELOPMENT CENTRE
Maithil paintings from Madubani in Bihar (India) have been discovered by the international art world. Until fairly recently, little interest was taken in the art produced on Nepal's side of the border. This changed with the foundation of the Janakpur Women's Art Project (in 1989), with the dual aim of promoting traditional Maithil painting skills and empowering the women painters. The project is housed in the Janakpur Women's Development Centre and it's possible to visit the Centre to see the women working, and to buy what they produce.
The project includes women of diverse castes and backgrounds and the art that is created reflects this variety: wedding paintings, pregnant elephants, gods, and abstract tattoo designs are just some of the subjects. Increasingly the paintings are changing to include scenes from the women are also producing ceramics (plates and figures), papier mâché, patchwork tapestry, silk-screen prints, and woven wall hangings.
While the Kayastha caste has had a tradition of making paintings on paper to wrap gifts at the time of marriage, for most Maithil women the practice of painting on paper was fairly new. Janakpur is now famous for its colourful paintings on paper, yet this 'tradition' began in the first days of the JWDC when, under a grant from the Ella Lyman Cabot Trust, a talented group of women were selected to learn how to transfer their wall designs to paper. They travelled from their villages to the Centre in Janakpur where, without losing their originality, they developed skills in composition as well as in the use of colour and line. After various experiments, it was decided to paint on Nepali handmade lokta (Daphne) paper, which has the rough texture of mud walls. Then, after trying pens and sticks, the women decided on brushes, and after experimenting with their own dyes and pigments, which they mixed with milk, they found that acrylic paint worked best on Nepali paper and could be used as spontaneously as the dyes and home-made paints that were applied on house walls.
Since the establishment of the JWDC, the Maithil art of Nepal has developed in a different direction. Just as is characteristic of Madhubani art, figures are shown without perspective, often in profile and with large eyes. Natural images from wall paintings - such as leaves, lotus flowers, parrots, and fish - fill empty space in all types of scenes. Careful attention is paid to colour and pattern, as on a fish or a sari. The designs found around doors and windows or at the bottom of a wall are the designs that border the page. But just as bold, often humorous, designs were painted on their mud walls, now women paint with similar spontaneity on handmade Nepali lokta paper. These fresh, lively scenes on Nepali paper are today known as Janakpur art.
Proud of their traditional culture, the women continue to illustrate Maithil rituals or to make paintings of Ram and Sita who, according to legend, married in Janakpur. And in the 'office' where they sang songs or told tales of the Hindu gods, they naturally painted scenes from the Hindu epic Ramayana or from Maithil songs and folktales. Many women have enjoyed painting the Maithil tale of Anjur, a tale in which a new bride is made to do impossible tasks by her jealous sisters-in-law, and is helpeed, each time, by sympathetic birds or snakes. They often mix images of other tales in with Anjur's tale, and similarly gods will appear in scenes of family planning. This mixing of themes is a reflection of the real world of the Janakpur artists today. Artists associated with the Janakpur Women's Development Centre are earning recognition as some of the finest contemporary artists in Nepal.
The range of products now being produced include paintings, and painted products like cards, mirror frames, photo frames, wall hangings, boxes, etc.
Cire-Perdue Metal Icons,
The Nepalese ritual and traditional icons of bronze and copper are famous the world over. The numerous art works in museums and personal collections reflect the superb skill and workmanship of the masters who produced them in the past. This great talent has been nurtured till today by not only the demand within Nepal for sacred and ritual icons but also by buyers from all over the world. These pieces are cast in the lost-wax or cire-perdue process. The technique involves the moulding of beeswax into the desired form, after which the wax is covered with a layer of fine clay and rice-chaff mixture. Meanwhile clay is also deftly tucked inside the image. Once the clay is heated, the wax melts out through a hole in the bottom to leave a hollow mould, hence the name 'lost wax'. When molten bronze has been poured inside and has cooled, the mould is broken and the piece released for further refining. Each piece is therefore unique and individually cast.
The Nepalese ritual and traditional icons of bronze and copper are famous the world over. The numerous art works in museums and personal collections reflect the superb skill and workmanship of the masters who produced them in the past. This great talent has been nurtured till today by not only the demand within Nepal for sacred and ritual icons but also by buyers from all over the world. These pieces are cast in the lost-wax or cire-perdue process. The technique involves the moulding of beeswax into the desired form, after which the wax is covered with a layer of fine clay and rice-chaff mixture. Meanwhile clay is also deftly tucked inside the image. Once the clay is heated, the wax melts out through a hole in the bottom to leave a hollow mould, hence the name 'lost wax'. When molten bronze has been poured inside and has cooled, the mould is broken and the piece released for further refining. Each piece is therefore unique and individually cast.
PRACTITIONERS & LOCATIONS
The casting of metal objects using the lost wax method has been practised for centuries by craftsmen from the Newar community known as kasa. Within this classification, there are basically two castes that dominate: the shakyas or those who work with brass or bronze; and the tamrakars or those who work with copper or brass. The shakyas come from a relatively high caste and tend to be Buddhist. Unlike the shakyas, who focus more on metal cast objects, the tamrakars are well known for their work with brass and copper sheets that are beaten into shape using a special hammer.
Metal casting is a craft/ occupation that uses the skills of every member of the family, with each member being given a specific role and responsibility. Traditionally, the skilled tasks in the casting process were carried out by men, while the less skilled tasks were performed by women and children.
The production of metal crafts by this process of casting is centred chiefly at Lalitpur where it has been a household industry for centuries; the work is done by the kasa who are professional metal-workers. Metal casting is done, to some extent, by the kasas of the Kathmandu Valley specially those from Bhaktapur and outlying regions such as Tansen (Palpa district, west Nepal), Pokhara (west Nepal), and Bhojpur (east Nepal) - Tansen, Chainpur, and Bhojpur still remain centres for the production of brass and bronze household items, though the tradition is a languishing one. Ten years ago in Bhojpur, there were 40 families making cast objects using the lost wax method; today, this number has dropped to eight families. Similar changes have also occurred in Tansen and Chainpur.
RAW MATERIALS
In the casting process used for utilitarian vessels, pitchers, and bowls, two basic alloys are found (most often) - bronze (kasa), the more sought after combination of metals, consists of copper and tin in a ratio of 3:1, and brass (pittal), consists of copper and zinc in a proportion of 3:1.
Bronze products are more expensive to purchase as the cost of tin is much higher than the cost of zinc. Copper is relatively inexpensive to buy. In addition to price, there is also a significant difference in the appearance of these two metal combinations. Bronze, which is a harder alloy, has a silvery colour. It is considered by craftsmen to be easier to work with because of the speed at which it melts and cools. Brass, on the other hand, has a yellowish tint.
Utensils are also cast from discarded brass and bronze (khu) that has been combined, melted down, and recast. The colour of these objects varies depending upon the concentration of either brass or bronze and the quality of the metals used.
PROCESS & TECHNIQUE
The process followed has some similarities to that used in casting icons.
A general rule is that any items taller than 20 cm are made in two halves at the wax moulding stage; these separate pieces are later joined together after the casting step.
Beeswax (maina) - collected in the more remote hill and mountain districts - is repeatedly heated over hot coals and continuously kneaded until it is soft and pliable. While working the craftsman rubs oil into his hands to prevent the wax from sticking to his fingers. Once softened, the wax is roughly formed by hand. To acquire the appropriate shape, thickness, and smoothness, the wax shapes are refined using a horizontal, hand-powered rotating wheel (charkha). In the past, this device required two persons to operate it - one person to crank the wheel and the other to manipulate the wax piece. Now however, motorised versions are available, thus reducing the arduous nature of this step. This charkha is now often operated by the women folk. Using a thin layer of heated wax, the wax product is skilfully placed onto the wheel. Once centred, additional wax is melted to ensure that it is firmly attached.
With the charakha turning at a constant rate, sharpened, chisel-like tools (baaks) are used to create a smooth finish and to ensure that the wax model conforms to the proper thickness. The baaks are also used by the craftsmen to shape, refine, and provide details to the wax model. This might include a line or series of lines around the rim, mid-section, or base - depending on the design, an entire range of baaks might be required. Throughout this meticulous process, a small piece of furniture (kunsi) is used to steady the workman's arm.
Once this initial step has been completed, the wax model is gently removed from the wheel, using a sharpened baak. A three-pronged, tripod shaped piece of the model. This attachment will act as the passageway for the molten metal during the casting stage.
There are three steps required to make the actual mould used for casting metal objects. To carry out these steps, four basic ingredients are needed: water, cow dung, ordinary rice husk, and a special type of clay that is yellow in colour, dry and quite brittle.
As part of the first step, each wax model is dipped into a thin solution made of 60 per cent clay and 40 per cent cow dung mixed with water. This liquid mixture (masy) has a very fine consistency and can easily pick up the features of the wax model. The process is carried out a total of three times. Between each application, the coated models are allowed to dry thoroughly, avoiding direct sunlight to ensure that the wax does not melt prematurely. Depending on the weather, it can take up to two days to dry each layer. If the models are not dried properly, they can break once the molten metal has been applied.
As part of the second step, a combination of 40 per cent rice husk and 60 per cent clay is added to water to melt the wax inside. A small hole is created at the top of the three-pronged nowcha to allow the liquid wax to be poured out. Although approximately half of the wax is recovered, the rest is absorbed into the walls of the mould itself. This is where the phrase 'lost wax method' is derived from. The mould is then heated to a red-hot state again and set aside for the next step.
Since beeswax is expensive to buy, after it is retrieved from these moulds it is refined to remove impurities and used again. The hole where the wax was retrieved will later be used as the passage for pouring the molten metal into the mould itself.
As part of this stage, the actual casting of the mould is performed. A melting bowl or crucible is created for each mould from a mixture of 75 per cent clay and 25 percent smooth husk. This bowl is made large enough to hold the required quantity of metal to cast each object. The amount of raw metal needed is calculated by multiplying the weight of the initial wax model into nine. Once determined, the metal is placed into the melting bowl that is then physically attached to the moulds using a mixture of 60 per cent clay and 40 per cent husk. The bowl is placed in such a way that it covers the hole produced at the nowcha.
Once this step has been completed, the entire mould/melting bowl combination is placed into a heated casting oven (kwajhya) with the melting vessel facing downwards. Bronze requires two hours to melt while brass requires an additional hour. Using a long, pointed pair of tongs (sanyasu), the red-hot models are removed from the charcoal, shaken, and then tipped over to allow the molten metal to drain inside through the nowcha. The mould and the molten metal must be at the same temperature for this step to be successful - otherwise the metal will not flow properly.
After allowing the moulds to cool for 30 minutes, the metal object is removed by chipping the layers of mud/rice husk away. It is then washed in water. At this point, the metal is very soft and has a rough, grey, and oily appearance. By heating the object until it is red-hot and then plunging it into a pail of cold water the metal is instantly rendered hard.
As part of the final stage, the inside and outside of each metal piece is filed using a tool called retti. This process removes any defects or deformities and brings out the true colour of the metal. It also allows the craftsman to create a smooth, flat surface for areas that will later be joined and removes any excess material resulting from the casting process, especially near the points where the molten metal entered the mould.
In the case of a utensil that needs to have additional pieces joined together, this is done using thin layers of a special metal combination that is melted to hold the different segments together. For bronze, a 50 per cent tin and 50 per cent lead mixture is often used; and for brass, a 75 per cent brass and 25 per cent zinc mixture is used. As part of this step, a small quantity of the joining metal is placed between the pieces that are to be combined. Tree sap is sometimes used to hold the items in place.
The joints are then covered with hot coals until this metal mixture has melted completely. After removing the coals, if any molten material has come out of either side of the seam, it is smeared with a small sap covered stick. Likewise, if there is not enough metal in the seam, a thin rod made from the joining material is used to fill in the gap. Pressing the rod up against the hot object, a soldering technique is used to add more metal. While still hot, cold water is poured on to the object to harden the metal.
After cooling, the assembled vessel is filed and polished several more times. Using a thin layer of wax, the object is attached to the charkha wheel. A variety of different baaks are used to further file the inside and outside surfaces of the vessels. In some cases, a combination of water and brick dust (sikhachu) is used to polish the item. A mixture of water and wood ash (karani) is used to carry out the final polish. This combination, which is less abrasive, provides a nice bright shine. Following these steps, the object is finished and ready for sale.
DESIGNS
Using the lost wax method, objects such as batukas, ankhoras, and karuwas can be made with elaborate designs along the outside. For example, many akhoras have a series of oval-shaped medallion patterns, depicting images of Lord Krishna, Krishna and Radha, flowers, peacocks, or Lord Buddha. Others might contain a composite abstract pattern that completely covers the outside of the object. In addition to these motifs, there might also be a set of continuous rings in the form of flower vines that encircle the container.
To create a given design, an additional step is required during the formation of the wax models. Small printing blocks made out of a smooth, flat, textured stone are required for this step. These blocks are prepared using a sharpened, iron pencil to etch a particular design on to the stone itself. In some cases, several different etchings are made on a single piece. Since the quality of the stone used determines the texture of the print created, care is exercised when selecting the stone. Once prepared, these etched stones can be used for many years.
To use the print blocks, a small quantity of wax is heated until it is soft and then smeared over the etching on the stone, often using one's fingers. To prevent the wax from sticking to the stone print, either vegetable oil or just plain saliva is used. It is not uncommon for the workman to lick the block directly in an effort to save time. The thin layer of wax, which contains the impression etched onto the stone, is then peeled off. A pair of scissors or a small blade is used a trim the print into the desired shape. Depending on the number of objects being created, hundreds of these wax patterns might be prepared by the craftsman in a given session.
The etchings are heated and then placed on to the wax model. Care is needed to ensure that the individual peelings are well positioned. For example, the circumstances of a given container must be measured to ensure even spacing of the patterns. The goal is to place each of the oval medallion pieces onto the object with equal distance between each one. It is not uncommon to find objects for which the spacing of these designs was miscalculated. For example, some peacock batukas and ankhoras have one of the medallions cut in half to fill in a remaining space. Between each oval pattern, there are often thin decorative strips used fill in the spaces. These are made using the same process. To create the continuous flower rings around an object, small rectangular or square wax patterns are placed next to each other to act as the building blocks for this design. Once attached, the wax models go through the series of steps described above.
Clay Terracotta of Himachal Pradesh,
The potters of Himachal Pradesh originally belong to Jammu, Rajasthan, and Punjab and are concentrated mainly in the villages of Kangra, Mandi, Kulu, Chamba, and Shimla. Their place of origin distinguishes their style of working. These potters are locally known as kumhars, kumbhars, or prajapatis, and trace their descent from Lord Vishwakarma. Kangra district is well-known for its distinct red and black pottery. The pots are embellished by painting on them with the traditional white and black colours or by inscribing popular linear and circular patterns with a knife mainly before firing. The products commonly made include pots of different shapes and sizes. These are used for storage and ritual purposes. Diyas or lamps, toys, and figures of Hindu deities are shaped by hand or moulded and then painted in gay colours for the festive season. Kangra in Himachal Pradesh has clay ware in black or dark red colours. The products made are mainly for domestic use: gidya jugs for milk or ghee, patri bowl for curd or butter, and nareles or tobacco-smoking pots.
The potters of Himachal Pradesh originally belong to Jammu, Rajasthan, and Punjab and are concentrated mainly in the villages of Kangra, Mandi, Kulu, Chamba, and Shimla. Their place of origin distinguishes their style of working. These potters are locally known as kumhars, kumbhars, or prajapatis, and trace their descent from Lord Vishwakarma. Kangra district is well-known for its distinct red and black pottery. The pots are embellished by painting on them with the traditional white and black colours or by inscribing popular linear and circular patterns with a knife mainly before firing. The products commonly made include pots of different shapes and sizes. These are used for storage and ritual purposes. Diyas or lamps, toys, and figures of Hindu deities are shaped by hand or moulded and then painted in gay colours for the festive season. Kangra in Himachal Pradesh has clay ware in black or dark red colours. The products made are mainly for domestic use: gidya jugs for milk or ghee, patri bowl for curd or butter, and nareles or tobacco-smoking pots.
Clay & Terracotta of Andaman & Nicobar,
The earthen pots of Chowra are hand-shaped by the women, with clay taken from the neighbouring island of Teressa. These are low fired using sticks and leaves. The finished pots have a smooth, shining surface and a pattern of thick, dark, chocolate-brown stripes obtained from the juice of the tender coconut husk, which is applied before firing.
The earthen pots of Chowra are hand-shaped by the women, with clay taken from the neighbouring island of Teressa. These are low fired using sticks and leaves. The finished pots have a smooth, shining surface and a pattern of thick, dark, chocolate-brown stripes obtained from the juice of the tender coconut husk, which is applied before firing.
Clay and Papier Mache Toys of Pondicherry,
Traditionally, the toy industry in Pondicherry used clay; now the material used is papier mache and Plaster of Paris. The craft is concentrated largely in Kosapalayam, a village near Pondicherry town. The toys depict all aspects of Indian life. They are beautifully moulded and attractive in appearance. The craftspersons belong to the kuyavar and kosavar community. The dolls represent different Hindu deities in diverse postures or as symbols of different characters. The style as well as colouring is natural. Figures that are part of ceremonial occasions are shown in orange or rose colour and grey is used to show those engaged in personal labour. If it is a marriage procession, the bride and groom are in orange or pink while the band, the torchbearers, or those carrying gifts are in grey. Passengers riding a vehicle or horse will be in orange or pink. In the case of Plaster of Paris toys, the entire surface is finished with only one colour --- white or cream or pale blue. The jewels and special clothes of deities are splashed with gold colour.
Traditionally, the toy industry in Pondicherry used clay; now the material used is papier mache and Plaster of Paris. The craft is concentrated largely in Kosapalayam, a village near Pondicherry town. The toys depict all aspects of Indian life. They are beautifully moulded and attractive in appearance. The craftspersons belong to the kuyavar and kosavar community. The dolls represent different Hindu deities in diverse postures or as symbols of different characters. The style as well as colouring is natural. Figures that are part of ceremonial occasions are shown in orange or rose colour and grey is used to show those engaged in personal labour. If it is a marriage procession, the bride and groom are in orange or pink while the band, the torchbearers, or those carrying gifts are in grey. Passengers riding a vehicle or horse will be in orange or pink. In the case of Plaster of Paris toys, the entire surface is finished with only one colour --- white or cream or pale blue. The jewels and special clothes of deities are splashed with gold colour.
Clay and Terracotta of Andhra Pradesh,
Kumbhara community from Kannipatakka village bring clay from the ponds nearby to shape it into various traditional daily products like water pots, flower pots, animal figurines like elephants and horses. The recent years have seen diversification in the clay products like sculptures in different sizes and products with decorative elements have become more popular.
Kumbhara community from Kannipatakka village bring clay from the ponds nearby to shape it into various traditional daily products like water pots, flower pots, animal figurines like elephants and horses. The recent years have seen diversification in the clay products like sculptures in different sizes and products with decorative elements have become more popular.
Clay and Terracotta of Assam,
Assam has a rich tradition of terracotta which has been handed down from generation to generation. There are two traditional potter communities - Hira and Kumhar. The kumhar potters use the wheel and create figurines of gods and goddesses, clay dolls, toys, and pots. Whereas, the Hira community do not use the wheel at all and manufacture household articles using the compression method. Among the Hiras, only the women are engaged in pottery while the men help in procuring raw materials and selling the wares.
The most commonly used pottery products include earthen pots and pitchers, plates, incense-stick holders, and earthen lamps. In Kamrup, terracotta objects including clay tiles are made. Asharkandi, a village in Goalpara district, is famous for its graceful clay dolls. Today, the traditional products are still being made but new shapes and products are also being tried out.
Clay and Terracotta of Bihar,
The tradition of clay and terracotta in Bihar dates back to the Mauryan period when hundreds of male and female figurines and animal figures --- horses, elephants, birds, and reptiles --- were made of clay and baked. This tradition continued down to the Mughal period. Each village, district, and region has its own style of pottery and of decoration. The some rituals continue to be practised in their original form. The making of toys and images was --- and is --- closely connected with seasonal festivals and other religious ceremonies. In the past, clay village gods or gram devtas could be seen outside each village, guarding the inhabitants against bad luck, illness, and the wrath of nature. Clay elephants, signifying marriages, could be seen on the roofs of houses. These figures were not merely religious but also served as toys for children and decorations in bed chambers. Sometimes they were hand-modelled, while at other times they were moulded. Today, the potter's art in Bihar is confined to medium and coarse red wares and the making of dolls and toys on festivals and special occasions.
The tradition of clay and terracotta in Bihar dates back to the Mauryan period when hundreds of male and female figurines and animal figures --- horses, elephants, birds, and reptiles --- were made of clay and baked. This tradition continued down to the Mughal period. Each village, district, and region has its own style of pottery and of decoration. The some rituals continue to be practised in their original form. The making of toys and images was --- and is --- closely connected with seasonal festivals and other religious ceremonies. In the past, clay village gods or gram devtas could be seen outside each village, guarding the inhabitants against bad luck, illness, and the wrath of nature. Clay elephants, signifying marriages, could be seen on the roofs of houses. These figures were not merely religious but also served as toys for children and decorations in bed chambers. Sometimes they were hand-modelled, while at other times they were moulded. Today, the potter's art in Bihar is confined to medium and coarse red wares and the making of dolls and toys on festivals and special occasions.
Clay and Terracotta of Chattisgarh,
Votive terracotta figures are found widely in the districts of Bastar, Jhabua, Sarguja, Raigarh, and Mandla. Clay icons are placed on the borders of villages to ward off evil spirits, to appease and propitiate unseen forces, and also to seek their blessings for a trouble-free and happy life. Icons of Matri Devi or the Mother Goddess, known as Mai among tribals, are installed and propitiated to guard villagers from plague, fever, and epidemics. The idols have various names, linked to the name of the village: Khanda Mai, Banjarin Mai, Kankalin Mai, and Chechak Mai. The tribals of Bilaspur have animal and human figures on their roof tiles. The Baigas and Gonds of the Mandla region make figures with sunken eyes and big noses, with their head covered with animal hairs. These are linked in some form with witchcraft and evil spirits and are placed in fields or on roof tops as protection. Sacred spaces under trees also have votive terracotta offerings. A wooden pillar intricately carved with figures of gods and animals is installed in the central courtyard of temples, known as the devgudi. Clay images of gods and goddesses are also installed in the temples. Propitiation of the deities is done with votive terracotta offerings. Horses are a common form of terracotta figurines. The terracotta elephants of Chindwara are depicted with two riders sitting on a howdah. Howdah elephants are crafted in Bastar, Mandla, and Betul. They are sometimes used as the sinhasan or seat of the Mother Goddess. Betul specialises in animal figures. The mud walls of houses are adorned with clay murals, clay relief, or carvings, usually done by women. Clay is mixed with paddy husk and cow dung in this process, and the motifs are include traditional chauk or square motifs and animal figures on the internal and external walls of the houses. This relief work is bare and unpainted. In Rewa and Shahdol, life-size figures of gods and goddesses like Ganesha, Hanuman, Shiva, and Kali, depicted on the interior walls of the houses, give them a temple-like aura. The facial features are finely carved and embellished with fine lines. Tribal terracotta masks form a part of all community celebrations and are very popular in the regions of Bastar, Sarguja, Mandla, and Betul. The Chher Chhera festival is celebrated with young men and women wearing masks dancing and singing. Clay masks are made out of clay pots or matkas with holes for eyes and with clay noses stuck on them. Masks are coloured red and are used in folk plays and dances. Matkas turned upside down with bold and grotesque features are seen fixed on bamboo poles in fields acting as scarecrows. The tribal groups of Sahariya, Gond, Baiga, and Pardhan make attractive grain storage bins embellished with carved animal and human figures. Lamps or diyas are also common terracotta products. The famous chidiya diya of Sarguja is a complicated wheel-thrown oil lamp and works on the siphon principle. The bird's belly is detachable and has a tube-like opening by which it is filled with oil. Since it is kept lit at the devgudi of the Mother Goddess, it is known as Mata Diya or Mother Lamp.
Votive terracotta figures are found widely in the districts of Bastar, Jhabua, Sarguja, Raigarh, and Mandla. Clay icons are placed on the borders of villages to ward off evil spirits, to appease and propitiate unseen forces, and also to seek their blessings for a trouble-free and happy life. Icons of Matri Devi or the Mother Goddess, known as Mai among tribals, are installed and propitiated to guard villagers from plague, fever, and epidemics. The idols have various names, linked to the name of the village: Khanda Mai, Banjarin Mai, Kankalin Mai, and Chechak Mai. The tribals of Bilaspur have animal and human figures on their roof tiles. The Baigas and Gonds of the Mandla region make figures with sunken eyes and big noses, with their head covered with animal hairs. These are linked in some form with witchcraft and evil spirits and are placed in fields or on roof tops as protection. Sacred spaces under trees also have votive terracotta offerings. A wooden pillar intricately carved with figures of gods and animals is installed in the central courtyard of temples, known as the devgudi. Clay images of gods and goddesses are also installed in the temples. Propitiation of the deities is done with votive terracotta offerings. Horses are a common form of terracotta figurines. The terracotta elephants of Chindwara are depicted with two riders sitting on a howdah. Howdah elephants are crafted in Bastar, Mandla, and Betul. They are sometimes used as the sinhasan or seat of the Mother Goddess. Betul specialises in animal figures. The mud walls of houses are adorned with clay murals, clay relief, or carvings, usually done by women. Clay is mixed with paddy husk and cow dung in this process, and the motifs are include traditional chauk or square motifs and animal figures on the internal and external walls of the houses. This relief work is bare and unpainted. In Rewa and Shahdol, life-size figures of gods and goddesses like Ganesha, Hanuman, Shiva, and Kali, depicted on the interior walls of the houses, give them a temple-like aura. The facial features are finely carved and embellished with fine lines. Tribal terracotta masks form a part of all community celebrations and are very popular in the regions of Bastar, Sarguja, Mandla, and Betul. The Chher Chhera festival is celebrated with young men and women wearing masks dancing and singing. Clay masks are made out of clay pots or matkas with holes for eyes and with clay noses stuck on them. Masks are coloured red and are used in folk plays and dances. Matkas turned upside down with bold and grotesque features are seen fixed on bamboo poles in fields acting as scarecrows. The tribal groups of Sahariya, Gond, Baiga, and Pardhan make attractive grain storage bins embellished with carved animal and human figures. Lamps or diyas are also common terracotta products. The famous chidiya diya of Sarguja is a complicated wheel-thrown oil lamp and works on the siphon principle. The bird's belly is detachable and has a tube-like opening by which it is filled with oil. Since it is kept lit at the devgudi of the Mother Goddess, it is known as Mata Diya or Mother Lamp.
Clay and Terracotta of Delhi,
A variety of earthen objects such as pitchers, flower vases, pots, cut-work lamps, Matka-water pot, Surahi- the narrow necked pot, Gamla- flower pots , lanterns, cutwork lamps, Handi-cooking utensil, Parat-larger platters, gulaks, chillums, handis, musical instruments Diya-oil lamps, Aarti lamps used in rituals, idols and figures of gods and goddesses, large garden pots, patterned tiles, roof tiles, urlis, etcall made of light red clay which boasts a cooling effect can be found in abundance.
A large number of the potters in Delhi have migrated from the neighboring states of Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan. They are located in Govindpuri and Hauz Rani: Kumbhar Basti. A number have settled in the Prajapati Colony in Uttam Nagar that was set up in the 1970’s to house the potters. As most of the potters had names connected with their caste occupation the colony was called Prajapati. Currently over 400 families practicing this craft in the colony and provide their products across Delhi and NCR.
The methods adopted by the potters are similar to those employed in the pottery tradition(s) of their ancestral place. Black, red, and yellow clay in the form of small pieces is obtained from Rajasthan and Delhi. This is mixed and dried, after which water is added to it. The resulting mixture of wet clay is filtered through a fine sieve to remove pebbles. After the clay has been kneaded into homogenous flexible dough, the prepared clay is made into a variety of artifacts using either the throwing technique. Coiling technique is used in making large products that are too large to be thrown on the wheel and to make those with shapes that cannot be turned on the wheel. After giving shape to the item and drying it in the shade, it is baked in the kiln. The potters specialize in making particular products and have specialize in what they do.
Their tools are rudimentary and include the the Kumbhar chaak or potter's wheel, the electric wheel, the Khuriya or turning tool, the Mogri wooden mallet , Sua or incising needle, the Thapi wooden beater, Thapa – the large beater, Maniya or die and the Katni carving tool.
Clay and Terracotta of Goa,
Goa earthenware, with its deep, rich, red surface has a charm and style of its own. The North Goa districts of Bicholim and Calangute are well known for its red clay pottery traditionally done by the Kumbhar community who now have added stoneware products to their repertoire. Making both utilitarian products for cooking and storing liquids - such as pots, bowls, plates and vases, they also craft items like lamps, idols, sculptures, planters, large figurines and masks for sale. The red clay is obtained from the fields in Bicholim then kept in water for two days and sieved through a net till a fine homogenous mixture is obtained. It is left to dry for 10 days till it is ready for kneading. The processes used include throwing, coiling, beading, pinching, sculpting and manipulating the clay to form the object. The Kumbhar also use the processes of moulds, clay slip as joinery and slab casting when needed. Local kilns are used for firing. The terracotta objects are fired in a kiln and cooled for a day. The products are sold at Mapusa and in weekly market in Panaji and Madgaon.
Goa earthenware, with its deep, rich, red surface has a charm and style of its own. The North Goa districts of Bicholim and Calangute are well known for its red clay pottery traditionally done by the Kumbhar community who now have added stoneware products to their repertoire. Making both utilitarian products for cooking and storing liquids - such as pots, bowls, plates and vases, they also craft items like lamps, idols, sculptures, planters, large figurines and masks for sale. The red clay is obtained from the fields in Bicholim then kept in water for two days and sieved through a net till a fine homogenous mixture is obtained. It is left to dry for 10 days till it is ready for kneading. The processes used include throwing, coiling, beading, pinching, sculpting and manipulating the clay to form the object. The Kumbhar also use the processes of moulds, clay slip as joinery and slab casting when needed. Local kilns are used for firing. The terracotta objects are fired in a kiln and cooled for a day. The products are sold at Mapusa and in weekly market in Panaji and Madgaon.
Clay and Terracotta of Gujarat,
Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat are noted for their beautiful pottery. The ware is white, with delicate designs on it. Bhuj in Kutch has a colony of potters producing clay utensils, tea kettles, bowls and pots for water, miniature toys, grinding stones, furnaces, and griddles. Festival objects like toy elephants, bullocks, and horses are also made by hand. This region is also noted for large grain containers. The pottery has a distinctive pale creamy colour. Relief work is done on it with mirrors and motifs. In Saurashtra, votive terracottas of horses, elephants with riders, calves, and goddesses, as well as imaginative versions of the deity Ganesha are done by hand. The handmade figures are moulded by women, and the wheel is by manned by men. This region is noted for its gopichandan --- clay which is the colour of sandal wood --- from which buff coloured pottery is made. Clay utensils with a lac coating are crafted by the tribals of the Chota Udepur region. Botad village in Bhavnagar is noted for clay whistles, clay bells, and clay buttons . Gujarat has a unique tradition of votive terracotta, that follows from the Indus family heritage. Figurines of animals and humans are made from clay and coated with lime. They are then painted upon and are often placed in shrines and sacred groves. The raw material of these products is the mati- red clay, also called terracotta. After the pounding and preparation of the clay, it is moulded by the use of a charkha (spinning wheel). After the moulding, the clay is hand modelled with unique and intricate designs that are very akin to the hand embroidery done on the textiles.
Kutch and Saurashtra in Gujarat are noted for their beautiful pottery. The ware is white, with delicate designs on it. Bhuj in Kutch has a colony of potters producing clay utensils, tea kettles, bowls and pots for water, miniature toys, grinding stones, furnaces, and griddles. Festival objects like toy elephants, bullocks, and horses are also made by hand. This region is also noted for large grain containers. The pottery has a distinctive pale creamy colour. Relief work is done on it with mirrors and motifs. In Saurashtra, votive terracottas of horses, elephants with riders, calves, and goddesses, as well as imaginative versions of the deity Ganesha are done by hand. The handmade figures are moulded by women, and the wheel is by manned by men. This region is noted for its gopichandan --- clay which is the colour of sandal wood --- from which buff coloured pottery is made. Clay utensils with a lac coating are crafted by the tribals of the Chota Udepur region. Botad village in Bhavnagar is noted for clay whistles, clay bells, and clay buttons . Gujarat has a unique tradition of votive terracotta, that follows from the Indus family heritage. Figurines of animals and humans are made from clay and coated with lime. They are then painted upon and are often placed in shrines and sacred groves. The raw material of these products is the mati- red clay, also called terracotta. After the pounding and preparation of the clay, it is moulded by the use of a charkha (spinning wheel). After the moulding, the clay is hand modelled with unique and intricate designs that are very akin to the hand embroidery done on the textiles.
Clay and Terracotta of Haryana,
The kumbhar potters of Haryana are known for their slim-necked pitchers called surahi. These water pots serve to keep the water cool. The surahis of Jhajjar and Chawani Mohalla are especially famous as the water contained in these surahis acquires a special taste due to the quality of the clay available in these low lying area. Made from a combination of thrown and moulded parts the entire families participate in the craft process beginning with the preparation of the clay by the women and the youth. The men sit on the wheel to create the wheel-thrown surahi necks. For the round base, the clay is rolled and stretched over an upturned pot and then pressed into semi-circular terracotta dies that are engraved with patterns. After these semi-circular segments are half dry they are joined together with wet clay and left to dry in the shade. At this time the clay shrinks, leaving the surface of the die. Then the women attach the spout, neck and handles. The surahis are dipped in a slip made of barmi and sunaihri, the red and yellow clay, dried again and fired in mud kilns. Besides the surahi the potters of Haryana produce a large variety of terracotta products such as other water pots that are used not only to cool water but also used as ritual vessels for Hindu rites in kuan puja as well as during birth and death ceremonies, oil lamps/ diya, Grains storage pots, Flower pots, piggy-banks and tea cups/ kulhars, bowls of all sizes and use, musical instruments, clay toys, human and animal figures, plaques, medallions, and wall hangings. Two-toned vases, decorative pitchers, and lamp bases with shades of black and terracotta colors are popular. While there are potters in almost every village the potters of Jhajhar Bahadurgarh and Faridabad are the most well known
The kumbhar potters of Haryana are known for their slim-necked pitchers called surahi. These water pots serve to keep the water cool. The surahis of Jhajjar and Chawani Mohalla are especially famous as the water contained in these surahis acquires a special taste due to the quality of the clay available in these low lying area. Made from a combination of thrown and moulded parts the entire families participate in the craft process beginning with the preparation of the clay by the women and the youth. The men sit on the wheel to create the wheel-thrown surahi necks. For the round base, the clay is rolled and stretched over an upturned pot and then pressed into semi-circular terracotta dies that are engraved with patterns. After these semi-circular segments are half dry they are joined together with wet clay and left to dry in the shade. At this time the clay shrinks, leaving the surface of the die. Then the women attach the spout, neck and handles. The surahis are dipped in a slip made of barmi and sunaihri, the red and yellow clay, dried again and fired in mud kilns. Besides the surahi the potters of Haryana produce a large variety of terracotta products such as other water pots that are used not only to cool water but also used as ritual vessels for Hindu rites in kuan puja as well as during birth and death ceremonies, oil lamps/ diya, Grains storage pots, Flower pots, piggy-banks and tea cups/ kulhars, bowls of all sizes and use, musical instruments, clay toys, human and animal figures, plaques, medallions, and wall hangings. Two-toned vases, decorative pitchers, and lamp bases with shades of black and terracotta colors are popular. While there are potters in almost every village the potters of Jhajhar Bahadurgarh and Faridabad are the most well known
Clay and Terracotta of Jharkhand,
The tradition of clay and terracotta in Bihar dates back to the Mauryan period when hundreds of male and female figurines and animal figures --- horses, elephants, birds, and reptiles --- were made of clay and baked. This tradition continued down to the Mughal period. Each village, district, and region has its own style of pottery and of decoration. The some rituals continue to be practised in their original form. The making of toys and images was --- and is --- closely connected with seasonal festivals and other religious ceremonies. In the past, clay village gods or gram devtas could be seen outside each village, guarding the inhabitants against bad luck, illness, and the wrath of nature. Clay elephants, signifying marriages, could be seen on the roofs of houses. These figures were not merely religious but also served as toys for children and decorations in bed chambers. Sometimes they were hand-modelled, while at other times they were moulded. Today, the potter's art in Bihar is confined to medium and coarse red wares and the making of dolls and toys on festivals and special occasions.
The tradition of clay and terracotta in Bihar dates back to the Mauryan period when hundreds of male and female figurines and animal figures --- horses, elephants, birds, and reptiles --- were made of clay and baked. This tradition continued down to the Mughal period. Each village, district, and region has its own style of pottery and of decoration. The some rituals continue to be practised in their original form. The making of toys and images was --- and is --- closely connected with seasonal festivals and other religious ceremonies. In the past, clay village gods or gram devtas could be seen outside each village, guarding the inhabitants against bad luck, illness, and the wrath of nature. Clay elephants, signifying marriages, could be seen on the roofs of houses. These figures were not merely religious but also served as toys for children and decorations in bed chambers. Sometimes they were hand-modelled, while at other times they were moulded. Today, the potter's art in Bihar is confined to medium and coarse red wares and the making of dolls and toys on festivals and special occasions.
Clay and Terracotta of Karnataka,
Pottery is an age-old Indian tradition and the demand for it has never dwindled. In south India terracotta pottery has attained a high level of perfection. The potter is a member of almost every village community. The principal tools employed by this craft are the wheel, a convex stone, and series of flat mallets for tapping vessels. Red clay is used most commonly in manufacturing flower pots, images of gods and goddesses, and animal shapes. Sometimes the potters used reduction firing to give the pots an uneven black colour. Another interesting and less well-known use of the potter's wheel is the production of country roofing tiles which are molded in the form of cylinders and then split in half with a knife. Principal pottery cluster in Karnataka is in Kodagu district. They make small handmade terracotta toys and they also make bricks which are sold in local towns nearby.
Pottery is an age-old Indian tradition and the demand for it has never dwindled. In south India terracotta pottery has attained a high level of perfection. The potter is a member of almost every village community. The principal tools employed by this craft are the wheel, a convex stone, and series of flat mallets for tapping vessels. Red clay is used most commonly in manufacturing flower pots, images of gods and goddesses, and animal shapes. Sometimes the potters used reduction firing to give the pots an uneven black colour. Another interesting and less well-known use of the potter's wheel is the production of country roofing tiles which are molded in the form of cylinders and then split in half with a knife. Principal pottery cluster in Karnataka is in Kodagu district. They make small handmade terracotta toys and they also make bricks which are sold in local towns nearby.
Clay and Terracotta of Madhya Pradesh,
The tribal groups found in these areas are Bhils, Bhilalas, Barelas, Patalias, Nayaks, and Mankas. Jhabua is known for votive horse figures. Horse figures, solid or hollow, are painted ochre and white. The white surface sometimes has red dots. Figures are crafted by making cylinders and then joining them together. Folk idols of the goddess Lakshmi are in great demand during diwali time. Bhils and Bhilalas of Jhabua make clay temples called dhabas, ranging in height from 1 cm to 1 m. These are offered with terracotta horses at the village shrine. The top of the dhabas are decorated with a kalash or a circular pot-like motif. The dhaba has a small door through which a diya or lamp can be placed inside. Horse figures are offered to the deities two days before Diwali (on dhanteras and kali choudas or diwali) and between the months of April and June ( chaitra and vaishakh). A community meal is organized. Clay horses are also offered to ward off evil spirits from the fields and to seek blessings for a bumper crop. Terracotta from Jhabua has crude, solid, and plain figures. Hollow terracotta figures are big and stylised. Life-size figures of sargujas are made. The figures are painted with white chalk and ochre. Mandla terracottas show tantric influences and figures from Betul have form and variety. During Diwali, terracotta idols of the goddess Mahalakshmi, and of gaulang or elephants and horses with riders are molded as solid figures, washed with lime and painted brightly. The region also specializes in making terracotta heads of Gangaur, a local form of Goddess Parvati. These heads are fixed on poles and adorned with clothes. Cylindrical figures of Gangaur idols are made and installed in houses during the month of chaitra. Adla pakshi or love birds is a popular figure in this region; the heads of the love bird are attached to a common cylindrical body with a pair of wings and are a symbol of inseparable lovers. The toys are handmade and are either hollow or solid. They are made usually by women. Animal figures like horses, elephants, dogs, lions, birds, deer, and bulls fixed on wheels are very popular with children. The sizes of the figures are usually small. Solid figures have a lot of variety and are more popular than hollow ones. Artisans also make hollow bird whistles. Some utility products include; Kuldi- pot for water, Chhalki- vessel for making curd, Bhutia- for storing toddy, Warya- for tapping male toddy tree, Faalna- for tapping female toddy tree and Wahaadi-small ritual vessel with a spout.
The tribal groups found in these areas are Bhils, Bhilalas, Barelas, Patalias, Nayaks, and Mankas. Jhabua is known for votive horse figures. Horse figures, solid or hollow, are painted ochre and white. The white surface sometimes has red dots. Figures are crafted by making cylinders and then joining them together. Folk idols of the goddess Lakshmi are in great demand during diwali time. Bhils and Bhilalas of Jhabua make clay temples called dhabas, ranging in height from 1 cm to 1 m. These are offered with terracotta horses at the village shrine. The top of the dhabas are decorated with a kalash or a circular pot-like motif. The dhaba has a small door through which a diya or lamp can be placed inside. Horse figures are offered to the deities two days before Diwali (on dhanteras and kali choudas or diwali) and between the months of April and June ( chaitra and vaishakh). A community meal is organized. Clay horses are also offered to ward off evil spirits from the fields and to seek blessings for a bumper crop. Terracotta from Jhabua has crude, solid, and plain figures. Hollow terracotta figures are big and stylised. Life-size figures of sargujas are made. The figures are painted with white chalk and ochre. Mandla terracottas show tantric influences and figures from Betul have form and variety. During Diwali, terracotta idols of the goddess Mahalakshmi, and of gaulang or elephants and horses with riders are molded as solid figures, washed with lime and painted brightly. The region also specializes in making terracotta heads of Gangaur, a local form of Goddess Parvati. These heads are fixed on poles and adorned with clothes. Cylindrical figures of Gangaur idols are made and installed in houses during the month of chaitra. Adla pakshi or love birds is a popular figure in this region; the heads of the love bird are attached to a common cylindrical body with a pair of wings and are a symbol of inseparable lovers. The toys are handmade and are either hollow or solid. They are made usually by women. Animal figures like horses, elephants, dogs, lions, birds, deer, and bulls fixed on wheels are very popular with children. The sizes of the figures are usually small. Solid figures have a lot of variety and are more popular than hollow ones. Artisans also make hollow bird whistles. Some utility products include; Kuldi- pot for water, Chhalki- vessel for making curd, Bhutia- for storing toddy, Warya- for tapping male toddy tree, Faalna- for tapping female toddy tree and Wahaadi-small ritual vessel with a spout.
Clay and Terracotta of Meghalaya,
A number of pottery units in the Garo Hills are engaged in the production of clay utensils; these occasionally produce toys and dolls as well, particularly at the time of various festivals and religious functions in the area.
A number of pottery units in the Garo Hills are engaged in the production of clay utensils; these occasionally produce toys and dolls as well, particularly at the time of various festivals and religious functions in the area.
Clay and Terracotta of Pondicherry,
Clay figures are made all over Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Traditionally each village is guarded at its entrance by an enormous terracotta horse, which is the horse of Ayyanaar, a religious figure, the gramdevta of the village and its protector against all evils. Aiyyanar has an enormous moustache, big teeth and wide open eyes that keep constant vigil. Ayyanaar stands at the entrance surrounded by his horses and commanders or veerans. Ayyanaar figures, which include the horses in the army, range in height from less than a metre to over 6 metres. They are some of the largest terracotta figures to be sculpted and are painstakingly made by mixing the moist clay with straw and sand for a proper consistency. For the horse, four clay cylinders are rolled out with a piece of wood, for the legs, after which the body is built up gradually. The accessories, such as bells, mirrors, grotesque faces (kirthimukha) and crocodiles (makaras), are made separately as is the head. The parts are joined together on the auspicious tenth day, when the figure of Ayyanaar seated on the horse is given its features. This is then baked in a rustic kiln of straw and verati or dried cow-dung which is then covered with mud. Parts of the larger figures have to be fired separately, joined together and fired again. The faces are sometimes painted red to denote anger and the neck blue to denote calm. The rest of the body and decorations are also painted in bright colours. The oldest Ayyanaars and horses are found in Salem district. Salem and Pudukottai districts make the most large terracotta horses; the smaller figures, human, divine and animal, are made all over the state. Given the time taken by the firing process, moulds are becoming popular to hasten the process. Ayyanaar figures are found in the village sanctuaries of Chettampatti and Nallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Tirripuyanam (Madurai district), and Vadugapalayam (Coimbatore district). Most of the other village deities are also made of terracotta. The temples found in the village are usually for the mother goddess or ammankovil along with a temple to the deity Ganesha or Pillaiyaar. Another important terracotta shrine is the naaga or serpent shrine, situated under a pipal tree near an anthill. It is made of clay with an intertwined body and is worshipped for its power of protection and rejuvenation. On Vinayaka Chathurthi clay Ganeshas are made and sold everywhere. These range in height from a few centimetres to a metre and they are glazed, painted, baked or often unbaked. The models are immersed in wells after the festival, and the unbaked form is preferred as it crumbles easily. Other products crafted include water drawing and storing pots and cooking vessels. During the harvest festival of Pongal old pots in the house are replaced by new cooking pots, vessels for storing grain and a new container for the auspicious tulasi/holy basil plant. The pots symbolise continuity of life, creation, destruction and rebirth. In Tamil Nadu, potters are known as kuyavar, kulalaar or velar and they trace their origin to Vishwakarma, the divine craftsman himself.
Clay figures are made all over Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Traditionally each village is guarded at its entrance by an enormous terracotta horse, which is the horse of Ayyanaar, a religious figure, the gramdevta of the village and its protector against all evils. Aiyyanar has an enormous moustache, big teeth and wide open eyes that keep constant vigil. Ayyanaar stands at the entrance surrounded by his horses and commanders or veerans. Ayyanaar figures, which include the horses in the army, range in height from less than a metre to over 6 metres. They are some of the largest terracotta figures to be sculpted and are painstakingly made by mixing the moist clay with straw and sand for a proper consistency. For the horse, four clay cylinders are rolled out with a piece of wood, for the legs, after which the body is built up gradually. The accessories, such as bells, mirrors, grotesque faces (kirthimukha) and crocodiles (makaras), are made separately as is the head. The parts are joined together on the auspicious tenth day, when the figure of Ayyanaar seated on the horse is given its features. This is then baked in a rustic kiln of straw and verati or dried cow-dung which is then covered with mud. Parts of the larger figures have to be fired separately, joined together and fired again. The faces are sometimes painted red to denote anger and the neck blue to denote calm. The rest of the body and decorations are also painted in bright colours. The oldest Ayyanaars and horses are found in Salem district. Salem and Pudukottai districts make the most large terracotta horses; the smaller figures, human, divine and animal, are made all over the state. Given the time taken by the firing process, moulds are becoming popular to hasten the process. Ayyanaar figures are found in the village sanctuaries of Chettampatti and Nallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Tirripuyanam (Madurai district), and Vadugapalayam (Coimbatore district). Most of the other village deities are also made of terracotta. The temples found in the village are usually for the mother goddess or ammankovil along with a temple to the deity Ganesha or Pillaiyaar. Another important terracotta shrine is the naaga or serpent shrine, situated under a pipal tree near an anthill. It is made of clay with an intertwined body and is worshipped for its power of protection and rejuvenation. On Vinayaka Chathurthi clay Ganeshas are made and sold everywhere. These range in height from a few centimetres to a metre and they are glazed, painted, baked or often unbaked. The models are immersed in wells after the festival, and the unbaked form is preferred as it crumbles easily. Other products crafted include water drawing and storing pots and cooking vessels. During the harvest festival of Pongal old pots in the house are replaced by new cooking pots, vessels for storing grain and a new container for the auspicious tulasi/holy basil plant. The pots symbolise continuity of life, creation, destruction and rebirth. In Tamil Nadu, potters are known as kuyavar, kulalaar or velar and they trace their origin to Vishwakarma, the divine craftsman himself.
Clay and Terracotta of Tamil Nadu,
Clay figures are made all over Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Traditionally each village is guarded at its entrance by an enormous terracotta horse, which is the horse of Ayyanaar, a religious figure, the gramdevta of the village and its protector against all evils. Aiyyanar has an enormous moustache, big teeth and wide open eyes that keep constant vigil. Ayyanaar stands at the entrance surrounded by his horses and commanders or veerans. Ayyanaar figures, which include the horses in the army, range in height from less than a metre to over 6 metres. They are some of the largest terracotta figures to be sculpted and are painstakingly made by mixing the moist clay with straw and sand for a proper consistency. For the horse, four clay cylinders are rolled out with a piece of wood, for the legs, after which the body is built up gradually. The accessories, such as bells, mirrors, grotesque faces (kirthimukha) and crocodiles (makaras), are made separately as is the head. The parts are joined together on the auspicious tenth day, when the figure of Ayyanaar seated on the horse is given its features. This is then baked in a rustic kiln of straw and verati or dried cow-dung which is then covered with mud. Parts of the larger figures have to be fired separately, joined together and fired again. The faces are sometimes painted red to denote anger and the neck blue to denote calm. The rest of the body and decorations are also painted in bright colours. The oldest Ayyanaars and horses are found in Salem district. Salem and Pudukottai districts make the most large terracotta horses; the smaller figures, human, divine and animal, are made all over the state. Given the time taken by the firing process, moulds are becoming popular to hasten the process. Ayyanaar figures are found in the village sanctuaries of Chettampatti and Nallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Tirripuyanam (Madurai district), and Vadugapalayam (Coimbatore district). Most of the other village deities are also made of terracotta. The temples found in the village are usually for the mother goddess or ammankovil along with a temple to the deity Ganesha or Pillaiyaar. Another important terracotta shrine is the naaga or serpent shrine, situated under a pipal tree near an anthill. It is made of clay with an intertwined body and is worshipped for its power of protection and rejuvenation. On Vinayaka Chathurthi clay Ganeshas are made and sold everywhere. These range in height from a few centimetres to a metre and they are glazed, painted, baked or often unbaked. The models are immersed in wells after the festival, and the unbaked form is preferred as it crumbles easily. Other products crafted include water drawing and storing pots and cooking vessels. During the harvest festival of Pongal old pots in the house are replaced by new cooking pots, vessels for storing grain and a new container for the auspicious tulasi/holy basil plant. The pots symbolise continuity of life, creation, destruction and rebirth. In Tamil Nadu, potters are known as kuyavar, kulalaar or velar and they trace their origin to Vishwakarma, the divine craftsman himself.
Clay figures are made all over Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. Traditionally each village is guarded at its entrance by an enormous terracotta horse, which is the horse of Ayyanaar, a religious figure, the gramdevta of the village and its protector against all evils. Aiyyanar has an enormous moustache, big teeth and wide open eyes that keep constant vigil. Ayyanaar stands at the entrance surrounded by his horses and commanders or veerans. Ayyanaar figures, which include the horses in the army, range in height from less than a metre to over 6 metres. They are some of the largest terracotta figures to be sculpted and are painstakingly made by mixing the moist clay with straw and sand for a proper consistency. For the horse, four clay cylinders are rolled out with a piece of wood, for the legs, after which the body is built up gradually. The accessories, such as bells, mirrors, grotesque faces (kirthimukha) and crocodiles (makaras), are made separately as is the head. The parts are joined together on the auspicious tenth day, when the figure of Ayyanaar seated on the horse is given its features. This is then baked in a rustic kiln of straw and verati or dried cow-dung which is then covered with mud. Parts of the larger figures have to be fired separately, joined together and fired again. The faces are sometimes painted red to denote anger and the neck blue to denote calm. The rest of the body and decorations are also painted in bright colours. The oldest Ayyanaars and horses are found in Salem district. Salem and Pudukottai districts make the most large terracotta horses; the smaller figures, human, divine and animal, are made all over the state. Given the time taken by the firing process, moulds are becoming popular to hasten the process. Ayyanaar figures are found in the village sanctuaries of Chettampatti and Nallur (Tiruchirapalli district), Tirripuyanam (Madurai district), and Vadugapalayam (Coimbatore district). Most of the other village deities are also made of terracotta. The temples found in the village are usually for the mother goddess or ammankovil along with a temple to the deity Ganesha or Pillaiyaar. Another important terracotta shrine is the naaga or serpent shrine, situated under a pipal tree near an anthill. It is made of clay with an intertwined body and is worshipped for its power of protection and rejuvenation. On Vinayaka Chathurthi clay Ganeshas are made and sold everywhere. These range in height from a few centimetres to a metre and they are glazed, painted, baked or often unbaked. The models are immersed in wells after the festival, and the unbaked form is preferred as it crumbles easily. Other products crafted include water drawing and storing pots and cooking vessels. During the harvest festival of Pongal old pots in the house are replaced by new cooking pots, vessels for storing grain and a new container for the auspicious tulasi/holy basil plant. The pots symbolise continuity of life, creation, destruction and rebirth. In Tamil Nadu, potters are known as kuyavar, kulalaar or velar and they trace their origin to Vishwakarma, the divine craftsman himself.
Clay and Terracotta of Tripura,
Melaghar and Palpada village of West Tripura district are known for their special pressed clay work. About fifty families in these villages are making and marketing these painted clay work. Traditionally wheel based pots and utensils and handcrafted by the villagers who have diversified into other objects of skill and dexterity. Potters now also make small items of utility like oil lamp, flower vases, decorative wall tiles and pressed functional roofing tiles. Statues of popular gods and goddesses are a great attraction in fairs and festivals. The technique is to use a process of press forming inside moulds made of plaster-of-Paris that are cast over a well crafted original piece. Another significant skill of the potters of Tripura is to make dies and moulds. Clay baked die are popularly used in the preparation of milk sweet called sandesh .
Melaghar and Palpada village of West Tripura district are known for their special pressed clay work. About fifty families in these villages are making and marketing these painted clay work. Traditionally wheel based pots and utensils and handcrafted by the villagers who have diversified into other objects of skill and dexterity. Potters now also make small items of utility like oil lamp, flower vases, decorative wall tiles and pressed functional roofing tiles. Statues of popular gods and goddesses are a great attraction in fairs and festivals. The technique is to use a process of press forming inside moulds made of plaster-of-Paris that are cast over a well crafted original piece. Another significant skill of the potters of Tripura is to make dies and moulds. Clay baked die are popularly used in the preparation of milk sweet called sandesh .