Crafts – Page 11 – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage

Masulipatnam is an important carpet-weaving centre in Andhra Pradesh. The weaving of Indo-Persian carpets here began with the settling of the Arab community in the area. The vocabulary of carpet-weaving gradually fused with the local language, with the central ground of the carpet being called the khana and the border becoming known as the anchu. The patterns used are named after fruits or flowers like babul, ambarcha, guava, and jampal. The main designs on the carpets are named after the patrons of the carpet-industry: for instance, Ramachandra khani, Reddy khani, and Gopalrao khani. Other common names include Nurjehan, Shah Nawaz, Gulbanthi, Farasi, and Shahnammal. The designs are mainly floral or geometrical and the combination of shades is often a blue and green mixed with soft yellow and pastels. The carpets of Eluru and Warrangal are the pride of Andhra Pradesh. Carpet-weaving at Warangal began when the Mughal army --- which included artists and craftespersons -- moved into the Deccan region. Since the area around Warangal grew abundant cotton and was also known for weaving, thus carpet-weaving began flourishing here without great difficulty. Originally the local short-staple wool was used but now fine carpets are being manufactured by using long-staple wool from Bikaner. Most of the weavers are men; only a few women have been trained in the craft. Here also, the designs are often named after patrons. Mahbub khani, Teerandas khani, Hashim khani, Dilli khani, and Thotti khani are examples of this practice. The designs are again of Indo-Persian origin. Complicated designs are woven and the traditional talim technique is also present. Most often, the background is off-white and the designs are in deep green and orange. Dilli khani has boats (kishti) and floral motifs, and Thotti khani is a design-composition built around flower-pots (thotti means a clay flower pot). In 1885, these carpets, known as Deccan rugs were part of the British Empire Exhibition held at London and received an award for fine workmanship.

Carpet weaving calls for a high degree of skill and dexterity and is generally done by the Monpa women in West Kameng and the tribes of North Siang, district apart form the Tibetan community settled in the area. Carpets are woven in bright colours with predominantly Tibetan motifs such as the dragon or geometric and floral designs, reflecting the Tibetan-Buddhist influence in the area. Wool colours were originally obtained using vegetable and other natural dye sources, although synthetic dyes and chemicals are now commonly used.

Knotted pile carpets produced without using any mechanical contrivance are artistically created by Gujarat's carpet-weavers. The only tools used are a knife for cutting the weft after the knot has been tied, a panja made of iron for beating in the weft and the pile tufts, and a pair of scissors for cutting the pile level. Traditionally, vertical wooden looms are used for weaving.

The kind of carpets made in Kashmir resemble Central Asian styles like bokhara and Turkish makes. Often, a cotton warp is mixed with a woollen weft. Silk carpets are also made. Medallions, horse designs, and hunting and animal scenes are the motifs used. Floral and plant designs in unusual sizes can also be found. Trellis designs, the hallmark of Mughal traditions, are combined with plant motifs. Medallions in many varieties and shapes are found along the borders. In these carpets, repetition does not give rise to monotony. Since carpet-weaving originated in Persia and travelled to Kashmir, the designs are mostly local variations of Persian themes. In addition to the design, the knotting of the carpet is the most important aspect determining durability and value. Kashmiri carpets are always hand-knotted. A carpet is extremely expensive and considered as a lifelong investment. The carpet industry provides employment to a large section of the local population and also earns a fair amount of foreign exchange. The carpets woven in Ladakh are an integral part of the culture there. The community of Buddhists in Ladakh prepare carpets chiefly for personal use. The people in the area have been weaving the carpets from very early times. These are used as the main form of furnishing in a region where temperatures dip to extreme lows. The carpets are used for sitting on during the day and sleeping at night, as well as to seat guests and in ceremonies and feasts. The basic Tibetan style which is 3 inches x 6 inches is known as the khalidal. These carpets are woven by looping knots known as khabdan. The designs woven into the carpets are generally drawn from religious motifs, inspired by the symbols of Mahayana Buddhism.. Barajasta is the technique in carpet-making where the main design is worked out in pile and the background has a plain weave in gold thread which adds a lustrous appearance. Bokhara carpets are made in pure wool and three rows of irregular octagons form the main motif. Other geometrical motifs are used sometimes as are leaf patterns; the motifs at the edges include the 'tree of life', diamonds, herringbone, and latch hooks. The colours used are ivory, red, blue, and green. The background is usually in mahogany, mauve, yellow, dark green, and burnt almond or orange. The skeletal warp of the carpet is stretched tightly on the frame and the weft threads are passed through the talim or design, after which the colour specifications are worked out. Woollen carpets are very well-known in Kashmir and they are called kalin. Shawl weavers here took to carpet weaving as this has a better demand. Talim, a weaver's alphabet in shawl-making, started being used for carpet-weaving. The colour card has the dyed pieces of thread attached to it to indicate the colour combination to be used. The talim is organised in graphical manner, with each square standing for one knot, with the design being built up on this basis. The talim and the shade-card or the rang-ticket as it is called are combined together for the weaving operation. The talim writer may take up to three months to finalise it, depending on the number of knots per square inch. Indian carpets are distinguished by the panalidar back or pronounced ribs running down the back of the carpet. Modern carpets have a smooth back and the quality is not very good.

The main centre is Gwalior where carpet-weaving began in the early part of this century and the designs are traditional.

Traditionally, the northeastern belt weaves hand-knotted woollen carpets with bold colourful designs on upright wooden frame looms. The method of weaving and the motifs and colour schemes are similar in the entire belt. The warp of the carpet is cotton and is mounted on the upper beams while the woven fabric is wound on the lower beam. Knotting is done, with great skill and dexterity, by looping the woollen thread around the warp. The rod used for looping is placed along the warp. When a motif or a new colour is introduced, the ground colour is cut and the new colour thread is inserted by twisting into a single warp thread and looping. The loops are finally cut with a knife and a pile is created. The number of knots per square inch could vary from 40 to 100. The patterns are mainly geometrical, using different colours to build the shapes. Bold floral designs or symbolic Tibetan motifs are also used. The colours are bright and bold and vegetable dyes are used.

The women of the Bhutia community of Sikkim practice what is perhaps the oldest form of carpet-weaving in the world. They traditionally weave hand-knotted woollen carpets with chiefly Tibetan designs on upright wooden frame-loom.

The warp - taan of the carpet is cotton and is mounted on the upper beams while the woven fabric is wound to the lower beam. Knotting is done, with great skill and dexterity, by looping the woollen thread around the warp, and the rod which is used for looping is placed along the warp. When a motif or a new colour is introduced, the ground colour is cut and the new coloured thread is inserted by twisting into a single warp thread and looping. The loops are finally cut with a knife and a pile is created. The number of knots per square inch could vary from 40 to 100. The design is first drawn on the graph paper and later translated in the weaving process.

The method of weaving and the use of decorative motifs and colour schemes are unique to this community. The patterns commonly woven on to the carpets are stylised floral motifs, compositions borrowed from Buddhist iconography, eight Buddhist lucky signs, geometrical designs, and most popularly, Tibetan designs like a dragon holding a ball in his mouth or the two mythical Tibetan birds called the dak and the jira. Tibetan designs have a wide range and each has a significance and name of its own. The overall effect on the carpet is a single, powerful, bold design. Geometrical patterns are created using knots of different colour. Vegetable and natural dyes are still used to obtain the right colours. Besides regular carpets the Bhutia women also weave small bedside carpets and squares called asans to sit on. Their weaving techniques are being extended to dhurrie-weaving and woollen dhurrie-weaving.

Woollen pile carpets have played a prominent part in the textile history of Pakistan. At present in Pakistan a wide variety of carpets and floor coverings are being produced.

FELTED NAMDAS/ FLOOR SPREADS In the districts of Kalat, Quetta and Pishin, sheep's wool is used for the making of felt. The namda or thappur rugs /durries, carpets /galeecho, saddle bags /khurzeen and horse and camel blankets caps are some of the well known products created by felting. Besides these felting is also practiced for domestic use for bags, hats, winter coats, capes and waistcoats.To make the felt the wool is beaten with sticks and carded until it is clean. It is then evenly spread on woven mats or dampened sheets of cloth and sprinkled with a soapy water mix. Layer upon layer of wool is built up in this manner until the desired thickness is obtained. Brightly dyed tufts of wool are then inserted symmetrically into the top layer to form patterns. The wool and mat are rolled up tightly, rotated backwards and forwards by using pressure, and the roll is then securely tied. This manipulation allows the dampened fibres of wool to bind together or interlace in a solid layer which is then opened out to dry and harden. Far more intricate than the motifs on namda are the chain-stitched patterns on blankets and burlap called gabbas. Here woollen yarn in different colours is used on white or dyed felt to trace geometric or animal motifs or stylised patterns representing chinar leaves, grapes, irises, almond and cherry blossoms. In most cases the ground is completely covered with geometrics or floral patterns, scenes of natural beauty or pictorial stories - such as hunting scenes, wedding parties and celebrations. In recent years younger craftsmen have produced gabbas with chain-stitched embroidery in wool on jute that possess all the qualities of old masterpieces. The more important centres of namda production with such motifs are in Swat, Hyderabad, and the north-western part of Balochistan.

FLAT WOVEN COTTON DURRIES/ RUGS Emperor Akbar (1556-1605), is credited with having started the production of all cotton carpets in the South Asian subcontinent. The decisive factor must have been the need for rugs and tapestries to suit a hot climate and based on the more abundantly available raw material. The validity of these considerations is reflected in the large-scale production of durries that continues till this date. In the past these flat-woven cotton rugs were frequently made in villages by the women of each household for use as bedding and floor-coverings. Woven in different sizes the durries were used for multiple uses - cot mat covers, floor coverings for big assemblies, prayer rugs, and wall-hangings.Now woven on horizontal looms with machine-made, coarse cotton yarn by organised teams of weavers the practice of using hand-spun yarn continues in the village. Large centres such as Lahore, Multan and Bahawalpur were known for their large, boldly patterned durries, often in blue-and-white geometric design, which were commissioned for local mosques and interiors. Many of the finest durries were made not by professional craftsmen but by prisoners in jails: in the Punjab, the jails at Multan and Sahiwal (formerly Montgomery) were especially noted for their durries, but prisons in Sindh and many other parts of the subcontinent were also producing fine examples. There is also a tradition of creating patterns on plain durries through the process of block printing.

HAND KNOTTED CARPETS It is generally accepted that the art of the hand-knotted carpet, as practised for more than a thousand years, was developed in Iran. This belief rests on the fact that the oldest surviving carpets were produced by Iranian craftsmen in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries when during the reign of Shah Abbas Safavi (1586-1628) they reached the peak of their glory. The same period witnessed the rise of the Mughal carpet which forms a valuable part of the conglomerate of many national schools loosely held together under the label of Persian carpets. Emperor Akbar mobilised craftsmen in various media and one of his most ambitious projects was the founding of imperial carpet workshops at Lahore, Agra and Murshidabad.Much has been written in recent years about the features of the Mughal School that distinguished it form the styles evolved in Iran. While the Lahore carpet-weavers adopted both the standard knots (Turkish and Persian) and some of the stylised motifs executed throughout the carpet countries, they evolved their own patterns for the prized varieties - the hunting, garden or floral carpets. Not only were their trees and flowers, animals and hunters, drawn from life around them, they are credited with having achieved greater naturalism and mobility than their counterparts in Kashan or Ishpahan. Also they were among the most successful artists who could increase the pleasing impact of a floral pattern by providing adequate relief or using a light ground. As for the ultimate test of the quality of a carpet, the fineness of the wool and the knot, chroniclers have recorded that the Lahore carpets had up to 1,200 to 2,500 knots to a square inch and that the wool of the carpets made of the royalty, like those woven for Emperor Shahjehan, was indistinguishable from silk. A measure of the unbelievably high standard of craftsmanship attained by the Lahore carpet-weavers of the Mughal School is provided by a small piece made in 1907, long after the decline of the imperial workshops. The whole process involved in the preparation of hand-knotted carpets furnishes a fascinating study of human ingenuity. To begin with the basic raw material - wool - must be carefully selected. Fortunately, the sheep traditionally bred in Balochistan, Northern Areas and Cholistan yield fine quality wool. A crucial pre-weaving operation is the dying of wool in the desired colours. To say only that for centuries the craftsmen depended upon vegetable dyes and are now using synthetic varieties is to ignore the special skills developed by the dyers and on which the appearance of the carpet and the fastness of its colours depends. The most essential part of the carpet-weaver's equipment is a wooden (or iron) loom which may be fixed to the ground horizontally, in the fashion adopted by the nomad weavers, or vertically, as is the case in most indoor units. Yarn for the warp is stretched form beam to beam. The length of the beam determines the width of the carpet though there can be no limit to the length of the beam itself, except for that imposed by the size of the working space available to the craftsman. The tools used by the weavers are: a knife to cut the yarn after the knotting; a comb to set the wefts; and shears to trim the pile. The beams of the common loom are supported by two vertical posts firmly driven into concrete or heavy logs of wood. After the warp has been stretched arrangement is made for the crossing of its threads. Before the knotting of the wool pile begins about an inch of the warp is woven like ordinary cloth by passing the woof threads through the warp. For knotting the weaver sits on a bench in front of the loom. When several weavers work on a single carpet each one of them is responsible for a part of the breadth of the loom. Above the weaver's head hang balls of wool in the required colours. He ties knots on the warp-spread according to the given pattern by pulling down the yarn of the proper colour and passing it round the threads of the warp to form a knot. The ends sticking out in front are cut off with the knife which descends on the thread simultaneously with the completion of the knot. When a row of knots has been completed a thread of woof is passed from the other end and the pattern is beaten into place with the comb. The process is continued till the carpet is completed and taken off the loom by cutting the warp threads. The loose threads are knotted to form a fringe and the long sides of the carpet are bound with wool threads to make firm edges. Throughout the process the weaver depends more than anything else on his fingers and eyes, both trained to deal with the exacting demands of the craft and to make judgements with astonishing speed and precision as if electronically co-ordinated. The slightest error at any stage can cause irreparable damage. The washing and cleaning of the finished carpet is no less a test of skill than weaving. Carefully, through several processes and use of chemicals, dust particles are removed from the weave and colours made fast and well-defined. Apart from the quality of wool what determines the value of the carpet is the fineness of knotting. Both the standard knots the Ghiordes (Turkish) style of knotting around two warp threads, and the Sehna (Persian) style of knotting around two warp thread and looping under the next - are executed in Pakistan but the latter is more common. An average quality carpet has around 250 knots per square inch but in finer pieces the number may range between 500 and 1,000. A skilled craftsman can tie 10,000 to 14,000 knots a day. To facilitate speedy knotting the design is read out to the weaver by a Talim reader. The Talim is a graph of knots in various colours prepared by specialised on the basis of the pattern and colour scheme laid down by the designer craftsmen in other fields to illustrate a book, illumine a glass panel or decorate architecture. In the recent years, carpet business has become a vast enterprise with a turnover of millions of dollars and the entire production is controlled by merchants. The bigger traders have installed looms at their workshops and hire labour to work there. Although the number of weavers so employed is around ten per cent of the total in the country, the vast majority of weaver working on looms installed at their homes in villages also depend on the traders, usually a weaver enters into a contract with a merchant who provides the carpet design and raw material. In many cases women and children provide skilled and unskilled support to the head of the family. Since more than one person may work on a carpet and the amount of labour required to complete it depends on its size and design, the wages are generally calculated on the basis of the total number of knots a piece has. In the case of labour working at the traders workshops a worker is paid a stipulated amount per 1,000 knots. While most of the carpet weavers learn the craft in their homes at an early age, the community is receiving about three thousand entrants every year who are trained at more than a hundred carpet centres linked with an institution for teaching set up in Lahore in 1956.

SINDHI CARPETS Sindhi carpets are of two kinds, cotton durries and woollen farasis (derived from the Persian word farsh, floor). The flat-woven cotton durries are used as floor-coverings and are produced in a variety of colours and qualities. The earliest recorded durries had been made in jails in Khairpur, Hyderabad and Karachi.

TRIBAL FLOOR COVERINGS A robust tradition of weaving carpets with wool, goat hair, camel hair, and mixed yarn exists in the tribal belts of Pakistan. The tribes in Balochistan weave ghilims with brightly coloured diamonds with woollen wefts on a woollen or goat hair warp. The variety of patterns and colours produced is large and varied. Similarly tapestries woven in the north-western tribal area and Chitral are called kalins. Mostly these bear bold geometric motifs in primary colours dominated by red. The kalins woven in Chitral are made of sheep wool on a cotton warp and the patterns are bigger than elsewhere. Chitral is also known for palesks, goat-hair rugs used as mats by the local people.

WOOL AND COTTON FARASIS Woollen farasis and storage bags are woven by settlers of Baluch origin and the Mahars in villages in Kohistan, Guni, Kunion Ganwhar and Golarchi in Badin, around Ghotki in Sukkur and in Tharparkar. Patterns generally consist of coloured bands with fine, alternating geometric patterns. The quality and texture vary greatly according to the wool used for the weft. As dyed and undyed camel, goat and sheep's wool are commonly used, the colours range from white, grey and black to shades of brown. Madder and indigo were traditionally used in the weft and consisted to a deep red and blue with green highlights. More recent combinations include the same colours using synthetic dyes with highlights in red, orange and silver thread being favoured. The warp continues to be made up of white cotton threads spun locally or purchased in neighbouring towns. The ends of the larger floor rugs, once the weaving is complete, are made into tiny plaits, with tassels added as a finishing tough. Finely woven cotton farasis are used to sleep on and as prayer mats. A coarser version, woven entirely from camel or goat's hair called khirir is found in villages in Kohistan and Badin and is used for saddle bags (khurzeen), nosebags (tobro) and for storing grain (boro). Women are usually responsible for weaving farasis and work in pairs on very simple ground-looms, using a floating weft technique. The looms are usually set up in shaded areas of the otaro or courtyard and covered when not in used, as women return to the task of weaving when they can make time from their household chores.

The craft of weaving wool is a characteristic of the hills of Uttarakhand, initiated by the women of the villages. This craft has become indivisible from the lives of the natives, the Bhotias and the Gadvalis, even though the craft only took roots in the region just 3-4 generations back. Earlier a few nomadic tribes undertook the task of weaving woolen carpets, however now many more people have taken to the craft, and are weaving a variety of products. Many organizations have set about the task of teaching weaving and setting up looms to help the craft prosper. When talking about the craft, woolen carpets of the Bhotia are the most famous and the oldest form of the craft. Bhotias are a Tibetan nomadic tribe in Uttarakhand. Their winter months are spent in Dhunda, in an effort to obtain wool and weave fabrics while the summer months are spent in Harsil, growing beans, potatoes, apples and almonds. The charge of rearing sheep and procuring and preparing the wool is taken up by the tribe itself. September to October is considered to be the business time. Traditionally yarn is spun on the spinning wheel or the Charkha, after which it is ready to be knitted or woven. Two types of looms are taken in to use while weaving. For the coarser wool an upright loom is used while for finer wool the pit loom is used. Knitting, done with a pair of needles has attained a different level of fabric construction altogether with the motifs transforming into three dimensional textures. Sheep wool is often mixed with rabbit hair to attain extra softness, shimmer and whiteness to the weave. Once the fabric is made, it is washed and brushed to give a felt like effect. As a result of the blending of white and black wool in definite ratios, before spinning of the yarn, different shades of grey in the woolen fabrics area naturally obtained. Tibetan motifs which have a higher demand, has replaced the traditional Bhotia designs. The designs can be characterized by two broad categories, stylized geometric motifs and the floral and dragon designs exhibiting a Chinese influence. While many carpets are woven from memory, typically the design is followed by looking at the reverse of a finished carpet or from a colour graph. Bhotias sell their woolen products at annual fairs at Bageshwar, Jaulgibi and Thal. The Tibetan carpets have a popular international market too. Popular products made the Bhotias are knitted Kangsuk (socks), Saai (cap), Laakshu (glove), mufflers and woven suit lengths, shawls, dan (carpet), stoles, dumkar (banket) and paagad (belts).

In the high altitudes of Himachal Pradesh, sheep and goat rearing is a very common occupation for many villagers who are involved in blanket-weaving and felting. The Giabong and Kulu valleys are the main areas for gudma, the local name for a fleecy, soft, and heavy blanket which is woven by the local villagers in natural colours and finished with a warm red or black trimming. Mattresses locally called kharchas are made of woollen yarn derived from goat's hair. Numdha, a craft fairly new to Himachal Pradesh involves felting the wool and ornamenting it with colourful embroidery threads. The carpets of Himachal are rich and captivating in design and durable in texture. Dragons borrowed from the neighbouring country of China and the Hindu swastikas are popular motifs which get incorporated in these carpets. Many Tibetan craftspersons are engaged in weaving woollen carpets in the villages of Bhuppur, Puruwala, Sataun, and Kamsan in the Paonta block of Sirmur district. The cold climate in the hills in this region makes the carpet an item of daily use. The patterns woven are mainly geometric and blocks of colour are used in the patterns. Threads of ground colours are used; they are cut off when a new motif or design has to be introduced. The weaving is a combination of cotton and wool and it is done by women. Bhutias are traditional weavers who make common bedside carpets called duns with 60 knots to a square inch. Asans, with squares to sit on, are also made. The motifs are inspired from alpana or rangoli designs drawn on the floor during festive occasions and they are geometric or floral. Mythical Tibetan birds called dak, jira, dragons, lions, and the god of lightning are common motifs. The Central Asian influence can be seen in the presence of the famous key and swastika designs. Chali is a coarse carpet found in Lahaul which is a remote mountainous area in the far north. Kinnaur in Himachal pradesh is noted for its fine weave. The residue wool left after the material for pashmina shawls has been taken is used to weave a rough yarn called sheli from which carpets --- called karcha, chuktu, and chugdan --- are made. Black and white carpets are woven from a mixture of sheli and bakratha, another kind of goat's wool Thobis are black and grey carpets made from goat's hair at Pangi in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. The motifs found on these carpets are the trishul (trident), the swastika, and an eight-pointed design made of a combination of a diamond and a concentric circle. Although wool carpets are predominant in the region, a wide range of cotton dhurries are also made. The main colours used are red or blue, and the design comprises usually of stripes. Weavers of Sirmur use pit-looms. Varying effects are produced by using yarn of differing thicknesses, thin for the warp and thick for the weft.

Carved and turned wood work is widely practiced across several regions in Punjab.Products like chairs, peg tables in Hoshiarpur, containers called singhardaani in Jalandhar, low stools called peedi, wooden slippers called khadavan, butter churners, rolling pinks, wooden handles for tava, chairs, tables, beds and screens in Batala. Tools such as chisel, file, tool sharpener, saws, clippers, planers and drills are required for the crafting process.

The Bhutanese do carving extensively in wood, slate or stone, for making items such as printing blocks for religious texts, masks, furniture, altars, and the slate images adorning many shrines and altars. Carving, however, is not confined to wood stone and slate only - some of the most exquisite and rare carving of images of deities has been done on rhino horns and ivory and adorns various temples.

WOOD CARVING Common to every structure are the intricate decorations - woodcarvings and brightly coloured patterns. The interiors of dzongs, monasteries, houses and other buildings are decorated with the most beautiful carved and painted wall panels, pillars, and ceilings. These beautiful hand carvings are further worked upon by painting them in vibrant colours to make them look even more attractive. GN Mehra in his book, Bhutan land of the Peaceful dragon, says, "Timber, which is found abundantly in the country, is used lavishly for windows, doors, stairs, balconies, columns, beams, other structural members and for elaborate decorative cornices. It is this lavish and delicate use of timber in indigenous Bhutanese architecture that is mainly responsible for its very elegant and unique appearance and character." Murals and carvings of Lord Buddha and various other deities adorn the walls and altars of temples and shrines. The "Mandala", a geometric design of tantric import, is a popular feature in most temples. Windows and doors are also normally painted giving the houses a very festive appearance. Floral, animal and religious motifs are mainly used as themes for the colourful paintings the most common of which are the druk (dragon), dorje, Tashi - Tagye, or eight auspicious signs, and various legendary animals. Bright traditional colours are used with the outlines usually in a lighter shade.

FURNITURE AND DECORATIVE ITEMS The craftsmen use hard, semi-hard and soft wood to prepare functional and decorative products, hand carved and usually painted. Carved panels are also found on Bhutanese tables and other items of furniture such as cabinets, low divans, partition screens, mirror-frames and jewellery boxes. Most beautiful wood carving found on small folding tables called chodrums that are nearly always painted. Wooden sculptures are usually made of blue pine or walnut, as they are soft and therefore very good for carving. The products could be decorative items like dragons, masks, eight lucky signs, etc.

MASKS AND WOODEN ITEMS The Bhutanese make masks in wood, papier-mâché or clay to represent mythological characters and the masks represent both real and mythical animals. They are available in different sizes, painted or unpainted. These masks are used in the sacred, religious, masked dances in which large numbers of human characters, animals or gods or mythological figures are depicted with the help of masks. Animal masks are also popular as decorative items and are fashioned from one piece of semi hard wood and painted with mineral colour paints. WOOD PRINTING BLOCKS FOR RELIGIOUS TEXT The text of religious books is either written by a calligrapher or printed by xylography. Xylography entails carving the text in reverse on a wooden board, coating the plank with ink and then pressing a sheet of paper on to it with a roller; the printed text appears on the page the right way around. It is possible to see some of these books, printing boards and paper at the National Library in Thimphu, collection of 9,000 printing boards.

WOOD PRINTING BLOCKS FOR RELIGIOUS TEXT ON PRAYER FLAGS Like the blocks used in xylography, traditionally the carver used to make the blocks to print the prayer flags. The blocks are carved in reverse so that when printed with ink they are correctly printed. Flags are now being printed in India and other places and sold ready made. more on prayer flags STONE SCULPTURE In Bhutan sculpture in stone was not as popular as stone is difficult to carve. This medium was mostly utilised in carving out bas-relief used for the outer walls of chhortens and monasteries, and generally depicted the portraits of the Siddhas, images of Tara, Avlokiteshwara and Guru Rimpoche. It was also used for cooking utensil in Bhutan, but has become very scarce.

SLATE-CARVING Slate carving, an ancient Chinese art, was once done extensively in Bhutan to represent religious figures and deities. The carving used to be done on slate panels of approximately 40 X 30 cm and consisted of images of deities and inscriptions of mantras. These carved slate panels formerly adorned the exterior of temples and monasteries, and were also set into walls of chortens. Some fine specimens of this art can be seen in Simtokha dzong. Mining of stone and slate is being done in the Wangdi Phodrang Distt. While slate is easy to carve it is also heavier and more expensive than stone. This art form is now receiving the patronage of the Royal family.

PRODUCTS Slate carvings to represent religious figures and deities Wood: Chodrum: elegant folding table traditionally used as a portable unit. The three sides are carved and painted -with dragons, flowers etc.. Dramnyen The Bhutanese guitar has an external scroll with an elaborate dragon design. The long fingerboard is usually decorated with auspicious signs accented with gold paint. Strings are of silk/nylon the sound box f one hollowed wooden section and the sound board of specially treated goat skin. Darts (Khuru) and Targets (Bha) Khuru is a popular game in Bhutan, resembling the game of darts except for the setting up of targets. For khuru, two targets are set apart at a distance of one's choice. It is played between two teams on the basis of the best of three of five games of five, seven, eleven, fifteen, twenty-one or twenty five points depending upon the number of players. The darts are made from wood and feather. Altar (Chhoesham) A variety of designs exist, each embellished with exquisitely painted traditional motifs. Lute (Dranyen) Wood & gaot skin The Bhutanese lute has an elaborate dragon design. The long fingered board is usually decorated with auspicious signs in bright colours. The hollowed wooden section is covered with treated goat skin, and nylon strings are fastened to it. It is used by Bhutanese singers on every occasion.

Drum and Drum Stick In Bhutan, drums are usually made of wood and inscribed with various prescribed mystic charms to ward off evil spells. They are covered on both sides with goatskin. The stick for beating the drum is made from the wood of a tree called rushing while its handle is embellished with metal.These drums are used for all religious ceremonies and found in temples, monasteries and homes in Bhutan. Masks Masks are used in Bhutan for dances during festivals held at auspicious places and times, and they represent both real and mythical animals. They are fashioned from one piece of semi-hard wood, ususally pinewood, and brightly painted with mineral pigments. Stone Pots and Utensils Cooking utensils in Bhutan were often made of stone but today have become very rare.

In Nepal, though the terracotta tradition goes back more than three millennium, the introduction of glazes and the porcelain craft is relatively new. Unlike other countries in South Asia, earthenware products were rarely used for cooking or for eating; metal was always the material of choice in Nepal.

THE NEW PRODUCT RANGE With the technique of lead-free glazing being introduced, an expanding product line of useful and decorative items, along with a whole new range of crockery items, are now available for both the local and export market. Nepalese potters now produce a variety of quality ceramic products. The new range of products includes contemporary tableware and household utility items. Unusual glazes and pottery resembling stoneware - all lead free and of food grade standard - are now available. Recently, efforts have also been made to produce porcelain products utilising kaolin found in different parts of Nepal. CRAFT LOCATION The location of both the ceramic and porcelain craft is in the Kathmandu Valley itself.

Products ranging from blankets, rugs, storage bags and saddle bags are produced under the challi craft. The required tools are ground loom, shuttle, spindle, needle and scissors.

Althought embroidered through Himachal the embroidery is associated specifically with Chamba owing to the patronage by rulers of the area. Traditionally, the Chamba rumals were embroidered on square pieces of fabric that were used to cover offerings of food, gifts, offerings to a deity, gifts exchanged between the families of the bride and the groom and other purposes. Chamba rumals have been called 'paintings in embroidery' due to the theme being similar to those painted on miniatures. Practiced by women from all strata of Pahari society, the embroidery style differed between the folk and the court styles. The style developed by the court, embroidered by the women of the upper classes and the royalty has now come to be exclusively related to the craft. Though some themes were similar all else differed as artists trained in the Pahari miniature tradition often rendered the base drawing on which the embroidery was done, often providing the color palette too, for upper class women to follow. Themes centered on the depiction of the God Krishna and his devotees. They included scenes from the Raaslila, Raasmandal , the Ashtanayika, Godhuli - literally the'hour of cowdust' when Krishna and his cowherd friends bringing the cows back at dusk and other themes, While the folk tradition used vibrant colours the court tradition used subdued, coordinated shades. Traditionally, the Chamba rumals were embroidered on square pieces of handspun and handwoven unbleached fine mulmul cloth The embroidery was done using untwisted silk yarn in a double satin stitch technique known as dorukha, where both sides of the embroidered cloth were identical. The embroidery yarn and stitch is similar to the Phulkari embroideries of Punjab. Court themes included other subjects relating to the lives of the embroiders and often derived from the wall paintings of the Rang Mahal of Chamba and the Pahari miniature tradition including the royal hunts, the game of dice - chaupad. Products embroidered now include caps, hand held fans, blouses, dress material, table and household linen etc. There has been a revival of this tradition with the Delhi Crafts Council working to create pieces based on the court tradition.

HISTORY & TRADITION: MINIATURE ART IN CHAMBA The history of the Chamba rumal is linked with that of the rulers of Chamba, with the craft supposed to have come into its own during the reign of Raja Umed Singh of Chamba (1748-68), who patronised miniature artists who had fled from the Mughal courts. After the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurungzeb in 1707, the Mughal court went into decline. Ineffectual rulers and a swiftly fragmenting centre also mean a swift dissipation of the cultural patronage that the Mughals had been renowned for. Artists fled the Mughal courts, seeking shelter and patronage in the courts of regional powers that gained prominence as Mughal power at the centre declined. Thus it came to be that the Chamba king Raja Umed Singh offered patronage to miniature artists from the Mughal courts. This patronage continued under Umed Singh's successors Raj Singh (1764-94) and Charat Singh (1794-1808).

Even before the exodus of the artists from the Mughal court, Chamba was not unfamiliar with miniature painting. Though the pahari rajas were independent rulers, they were under a larger canopy of Mughal suzerainity that allowed a flow of ideas and techniques from the Mughal court. The sensibility of the pahari miniature - considered the inspiration for artistic, design, and aesthetic expression of the Chamba rumal - was proof of this cultural interaction. The rumals are prolific in the depiction of the wall paintings on the Rang Mahal (Painted Palace), started by Raja Umad Singh of Chamba (1748-68). PROCESS, TECHNIQUE, & RAW MATERIALS The traditional Chamba rumal was an embroidered piece of cloth, most often in a square format (hence the term rumal or handkerchief), but also occasionally in oblong formats used during auspicious or ritualistically important occasions to cover ceremonial presentation trays with gifts and offerings. Pahari miniature paintings in existence confirm this by depicting, in several kinds of situations/occasions, gifts covered with embroidered rumals. The rumal was used on a host of occasions: among others, to cover gifts being exchanged between the families of the bride and groom; to cover offerings to gods during religious ceremonies and rituals; and as decorative covers for ceremonial trays bearing gifts to rulers and other high officials.

1. PROCESS The process of creating a Chamba rumal involved the following steps.

The visualisation of the theme to be embroidered.
The outlining of the initial drawing in charcoal by a trained miniature artist.
The predetermination of a colour palette to be used while embroidering the rumal.
The actual embroidering of the rumal by the elite women along the designs sketched in charcoal by miniature artists.

2. CLOTH, THREADS & STITCHES The fabric used to make the Chamba rumal was hand-spun or hand-woven unbleached thin muslin or malmal. The thread used for the embroidery was untwisted silken yarn, which, in the do-rukha stitch used in Chamba embroidery, has a three-dimensional effect, creating tones of light and shade. This untwisted silk thread - usually made in Sialkot, Amritsar, and Ludhiana - was the same as that used in the Phulkari embroidery of the Punjab.

The stitch used in embroidering the Chamba rumal was the do-rukha, a double satin stitch, which, as its name implies, can be viewed from two (do) sides or aspects (rukh). The stitch is carried both backward and forward and covers both sides of the cloth, effecting a smooth finish that is flat and looks like colours filled into a miniature painting. No knots are visible, and the embroidered rumal can be viewed from both sides. It thus becomes reversible. A simple stem stitch using black silk thread is used to outline the figures. Other stitches like the cross stitch, the button-hole stitch, the long and short stitch, and the herring-bone stitch, as well as pattern darning, were also used occasionally.

3. THE SUBJECT MATTER There is a strong link between pahari paintings and the embroidery on the rumals. The subject of the embroideries ranged from religious themes, embodying the strong Vaishnava fervour in the pahari regions, to themes from the great epics, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata. Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu, and the raaslila or tales from his life formed the core of several depictions: the blue god, Krishna surrounded by his gopis, godhuli (the hour of cowdust, with Krishna and his cow-herd friends bringing home the cows); the Radha-Krishna dalliance, and Rukmini Haran (the abduction of Rukmini) are among the popular themes. A range of everyday scenes, from court scenes and royal hunts (shikar), to depictions of the popular dice game of chaupad can be found on the rumals. Wedding processions are also depicted. The figures are made with painstaking care and the costumes and ornaments decorated minutely in the style of classical miniature paintings. Colourful floral and animal motifs - peacocks, snakes, horses, and elephants among others - are often interspersed among the main pictorial elements. The borders of the rumals are almost always a combination of floral and geometrical, usually depicting floral patterns within geometrical settings like parallel lines and squares. The borders are created as a frame for the central picture, and serve to enhance it. Each rumal is a colourful creation, even though the elite version of the rumal is more subtle in its colour combinations than the more primitive and bold juxtapositions found in the folk style, which commonly use pink, yellow, lemon, purple and green.

DECLINE & REVIVAL The loss of courtly patronage from the early twentieth century onwards led to a distinct decline in the elite Chamba rumal, leaving only its folk version alive. However, the Delhi Crafts Council is working actively to revive the rumal. As part of this attemp, the Delhi Crafts Council - in March 2002 - started a small centre in Chamba, for training in the art of Chamba embroidery and the production of Chamba rumals. The Council has also organised and supported a six-week exhibition which displayed the work of seven women artisans - a collection of 13 rumals that were reproductions of ancient counterparts housed in museums in Chamba, Delhi, Calcutta and Ahmedabad. Among the 'revival embroideries' were the following:

Ganesha: The mythical Hindu god with the head of an elephant is represented with the main figure 'placed under a scalloped arch, with a green-leaved tree serving as an umbrella'. (Original rumal in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.)
Shikar: Representing a pastime common to royalty and feudal lords, shikar depictions represent ' a lively scene of movement', with details that include the 'variety of prey, the different weapons used, variegated colours for the animals [and the foliage] as well as the patterns of [the] dresses [worn by] the hunters'. (Original rumal in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.)
Godhuli: Literally, 'the hour of cow-dust', this refers to a rural scene: the cloud of dust that is raised when the cows return home at dusk. Often Krishna and his cow-herd friends are depicted bringing back the cows, a picturisation made more colourful by depictions of women watching, birds flying, nad fish swimming in the water. (Original rumal in the Calico Museum, Ahmedabad.)
Radha-Krishna: The depiction of Radha and Krishna on a pavilion is extremely colourful. The pavilion is two-tiered: Radha and Krishna, with attendants are on the first pavilion, while music and other activities are taking place on the ground floor. Depictions of trees, peacocks, and birds indicate that the pavilion is in the garden. (Original rumal in the National Museum, New Delhi.)
Raasmandala with Lakshmi-Narayana
The raasmandala or the various raaslilas of Krishna are popular subjects, especially as they combine colour, activity, and movement. In the rumal that depicts the Raasmandala with Lakshmi-Narayana, a 'four armed Vishnu and Lakshmi are seated on a double-petalled lotus, flanked by adoring monkeys). Around them dance five blue-skinned Krishnas, interspersed with five gopis. There is a 'male drummer in the forefront', and 'women musicians in ecah corner'. 'The spaces are interspersed with beautiful flowering shrubs and peacocks' in vibrant colours. (Original rumal in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.)
Parijata Hara: Parijata or kalpa-vriksha, the boon-giving tree, was 'one of the treasures churned out of the ocean' in the great samudra-mathan (samudra = ocean; manthan = to churn). The tree was taken by the God of war (and rain), Indra, for his garden. The story depicted by the rumal is that of the theft (haran = abduction/theft) of the tree by Krishna, and the ensuing fight in the heavens between Indra ('seated on his white elephant') and Krishna ('seated on Garuda'). (Original rumal in the Crafts Museum, New Delhi.)
Jagannatha: This depicts the divine triad of the Jagannath temple at Puri (Odisha) - Jagannath, Subhadra, and Balaram - with bowls of offerings placed before them. 'The first floor enshrines the crowned figure of Krishna along with Radha. (Original rumal in the Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba.)
Chaupad: This is a representation of the game of Chaupad or dice that was popular in the Chamba area The X-shaped base on which the game was played is depicted in detail; [f ]our couples, smoking hukkas (pipes) are shown playing the game.' (Original rumal in the Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba.)
Ashtanayika: Representing the popular subject of 'nayika-bheda' (various moods of the nayika), this has 'eight drum-shaped panels in two rows'. Each cell depicts the nayika in a distinct mood and in varied surroundings. The moods are depicted through expressions, gestures, and through surrounding motifs, including the peacock and doves. (Original rumal in the Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba.)

RESOURCE BASES & LINKS 1. IMPORTANT PIECES

So far, the oldest dated rumal is a 16th century creation that is supposed to have been embroidered by Bebe Nanki, the sister of Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith in India. This is now preserved in the Sikh shrine in Gurdaspur in Punjab.
A rumal depicting the battle of Kurukshetra - from the Indian epic Mahabharata - is to be found at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. This oblong piece is supposed to have been presented by Raja Gopal Singh of Chamba to the British in 1833.

2. COLLECTIONS

Bhuri Singh Museum, Chamba (Himachal Pradesh, India)
Crafts Museum, New Delhi (Delhi, India)
Government Museum, Shimla (Himachal Pradesh, India)
Indian Museum, Kolkata (West Bengal, India)
National Museum, New Delhi (Delhi, India)
Victoria & Albert Museum, London (United Kingdom)

3. INFORMATION

Textual & Photographic Material on the rumal is available with the Delhi Crafts Council.

Champa Silk Saree are peculiar to the state of Chattisgarh. The saree is developed from wild tussar silk (Antheraea mylitta). Since the texture of the yarn is rough, the saree too has a rough texture. The patterning is done with contrasting extra weft yarns on jacquard looms. The designs are inspired by tribal motifs. The product range developed out of tussar silk includes a wide range of sarees, dress materials, stoles, dupattas and home furnishings.

The gossamer-like chanderi derives its name from ancient town of Chanderi in Guna district of Madhya Pradesh. The fine chanderi has been compared with the fine Dhaka/Dacca muslin (which could pass through a ring).

Traditionally, the chanderi had a silk warp and cotton weft, with zari ornamentation, enamelled in soft tones, woven into the pallu/pallav (end-piece), kinara (border), and body of the sari. In the last few decades, silk has replaced the cotton weft to a large degree. The designs are produced by the extra warp and weft techniques. Three shuttles are used for weaving the border. Types of Chanderi saris:

	FIELD	BORDER	END-PIECE
Lightest Muslin	Plain	Very narrow border of complementary-warp zari	Few narrow zari bands, or one single wider band.
Common Chanderi	Buttis appear in the field	Broader borders in supplementary-warp zari, with coloured supplementary-warp silk embellishments woven into small, repeat geometrical or floral designs	Border elements repeated twice, often with narrow woven lines and buttis. Minakari [inlay] effect most common in this.
Do Chashmee Two Streams (NO LONGER MADE)		Wide borders with brightly-coloured supplementary-warp silk in a satin weave upon which were supplementary bands of white geometric patterns. (In some saris the borders were reversible).	Relatively insignificant: with either two narrow or one wide band of zari or coloured silk woven in

(Details sourced from Lynton & Singh, 1995: p. 149.) Colour was introduced into chanderi weaving about 50 years ago. Till then only white saris were woven, which were then washed in saffron to give them their characteristic golden hue and fragrance. Flowers were also used for dyeing these saris into soft pastel colours. Now the saris are available in a range of light and dark colours with and without the gold borders and buttis. Plain colours are also woven, usually to be used as a base for printing, embroidery and other embellishments. The quintessential colours now are light pastels; embellishments emphasising intricate gold borders and jewel like buttis are characteristic of the chanderi.