Crafts – Page 3 – Global InCH- International Journal of Intangible Cultural Heritage

Papier mache, a technique used in several parts of India involves manipulation of paper. The literal meaning being chewed or chopped paper, several adhesives such as clay, glue, starch provide strength and adaptability to convert the material into utilitarian and decorative products. The making process starts with degenerating paper by first soaking it in water. Once the matter is pounded to pulp - a crucial step to achieve smoothness in the final product, adhesives and wooden moulds are used to give shape to the treated paper. Successive layers are added as per the required thickness and further decorated with paint. Cards, File covers, folder, pen holders, jewellery boxes, masks are some of the products made out of papier mache in Assam. Masks made of papier mache and bamboo are particularly famous in Assam and worn by locals for local folk festivities.

This craft is found in Patna, Saraikella, Hazaribagh, Murhu, Khunti (Ranchi) and Madhubani. Masks used in the Chhau dance represent the main item of production; mobile figures of different kinds of birds for decorative purposes are also made. Mask-making is a hereditary trade with some families, though even in these families only those who are dancers are allowed to make masks. Originally, the masks were made of wood, and then bamboo; today they are made of papier mache.

Papier mache is a highly evolved craft of Delhi producing decorative utility items like pen stands, paper weights, boxes of all varieties, masks, puppets, bowls, glasses, plates, lampshades, wall hangings and decorations, mirror frames and other ornamented items. Located mainly in Kumbharka Mohalla of Mehrauli they use waste paper and clay, the big containers, decorated with pieces of glass, paint, and relief work, are light and lasting

The technique followed starts with the soaking of waste paper in water until it disolves into pulp, which is then beaten with stone and wood and then thoroughly mixed with with methi/fenugreek seed powder and wheat flour and made into a masala/paste. This mixture is used to create the basic product shapes. Then cut mirrors, glass and other shiny objects are pasted on in the areas designated and the product sun dried till it sets. The object thus shaped is then brightly colored and lacquered for a final shiny look.

The art of papier-mache is said to have come from Samarkhand to India in the time of Timur Lane, in the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries. The base of this craft is paper pulp coarsely mashed and mixed with copper sulphate and rice-flour paste. The figure is given shape by covering it with thin papers and then with layers of this mixture. The designers then sketch the designs intricately on the surface. Finally it is laquered and polished in bright colours. [gallery ids="176433,176432,176431,176430,176427"]

Although the craft of papier mache is not traditional to West Bengal, it has been nurtured over the recent years by the Santiniketan school of artists who have pioneered the craft and passed it on to many artisans. Many such artisans in and around Calcutta have taken up the craft as a serious occupation and their products --- mainly dolls and masks --- have found a market owing to their beautiful designs and excellent craftsmanship.

The products made from papier mache include human figures, birds, animals, caricatures, statues of gods and goddesses, and models of traditional religious centres like Khajruraho and Sanchi. Gwalior, Ujjain, Indore, and Harda are important centres for this craft. Gwalior is famous for its papier mache toys; Ujjain is famous for deities as well as for toys.

The minutely detailed craft, which - according to national awardee Mohd. Shafi Nagoo - requires 'education, patience, and eyesight' is incomparable for the fine painting work done on objects made of papier mache - all the painting, including filling in of colours, is done with a brush made of a single cat hair. Shafi Nagoo uses the Hindi proverb 'Sui se kua khodna (Using a needle point to dig a well) to convey the amount of delicate and patient work that underlines the artwork. Objects made of papier mache are built of paper pulp, or layers of paper pulp - hence the name papier mache or 'mashed paper'. However, the craft of papier mache refers, in practice, here actually to the technique of surface decoration rather than the creation of the body of the object. The craft was originally known in Kashmir 'by its Iranian name viz. Kar- i-Qalamdani' (Qalamdani = pen-case). It is believed that in the initial stages the craft was restricted to the ornamentation of pen-cases. The craft was also known as 'Kar-I-Munaqqash, which...could be because it was used for ornamenting smooth surfaces made of paper pulp or layers of polished paper'.

HISTORY & TRADITIONS The craft is supposed to have come from Kashmir from Central Asia, under King Zain- Ul-Abidin, who invited accomplished artists from Central Asia. According to Shafi Nagoo the craft can be traced in Kashmir to an Iranian by the name of Torab who came to Kashmir. The craft is found only in Kashmir district and is practised only by the Shia Muslim community. The craft was originally known in Kashmir 'by its Iranian name viz. Kar- i-Qalamdani' (Qalamdani = pen-case). It is believed that in the initial stages the craft was restricted to the ornamentation of pen-cases. The craft was also known as 'Kar-I-Munaqqash, which...could be because it was used for ornamenting smooth surfaces made of paper pulp or layers of polished paper'. Minimal decoration on early book jackets evolved to ornamentation of a range of products, from bangles to lamp-stands, screens, and cabinets, and - under Mughal patronage - to palanquins, ceilings, bedsteads, doors, and windows.

PROCESS Waste paper is soaked in water (usually in a large cauldron or pot) for about a week; the soaked paper is then beaten with a big hammer and/or ground in a maorata made of limestone. The paper is then mixed with starch made from the water of boiled rice and gum. The process is different in Kashmir from that in other European countries in that in Kashmir the paper is not pulped fully. The craftspersons use wooden or clay moulds of all the product prototypes. Initially the moulds were made of clay, usually by the artisan himself. Nowadays, the craftspersons procure the moulds - made of wood and brass. There is also a group of people known as sakta makers who 'make papier mache objects out of pulp and sell these objects to the "naqqash" or papier mache painter...'. Pulp is applied on the mould and, when dry, removed from the mould - thus the same mould can be reused. The mould is first covered with ordinary paper, after which a layer (or several) of the prepared paper is patted on to it. This is then dried for a couple of days, after which it is cut and the mould extracted. The thickness of the box (or any other product) is created by using several layers of prepared paper. The article removed from the mould is re-joined with the help of saresh, a thick glue made of natural gum and mishri or sugar. After the joint is made secure, the object is gently rubbed with a wooden file called kathwa. Chuna paste (made from 'kurkut' or pumice stone) is applied to smoothen the surfaces of the product, which is often wrapped in gummed turban cloth to strengthen it. The background colour (zamin) is applied on to the cloth. The designs are drawn from nature and memory; they represent creativity and improvisation. Shafi Nagoo says that he has 'thousands of designs' in 'his head'. He draws them - in free-hand - with a pencil on to the prepared surface. Traditionally, however, the ornamentation was done by making the outlines in zarda or yellow colour and the spaces required for floral work were stained with astar consisting of gypsum mixed with glue. A brush is used to colour the sketch, and then subsequently to create the required effects - like shading. All the painting, including filling in of colours, is done with a brush made of a single cat hair.

PRODUCTS The 'box' is the ubiquitous papier mache product. Round, square, rectangular, and oval boxes, in all sizes, lined with velvet on the inside (or painted with black lacquer) are typical. The boxes can be small (perhaps 5 cm³ ) or extremely large, over 25 cm in length. A varied new product range is now available, including both utilitarian and decorative items. Letter-racks, candle-stands, coasters, napkin-rings, small bowls, trays, small screens, and jars are some of the 'daily-use' products that are commonly made and which sell well. Ornamental fish, elephants, and ducks in various sizes and colours being made by Shafi Nagoo as decorative pieces. Small bells and chimes in an array of colours also sell well.

DESIGNS Depictions of flora and fauna, along with geometrical patterns - especially as borders - are predominant. Motifs range from depictions of flowers, bordered by geometrical designs, to depictions of branching trees, with flowers and fruit. The natural history of Kashmir is frequently depicted, be it in the prolific use of the chinar tree and leaf as decorative motifs, or in the representation of snow-capped peaks, of antelope, deer, and horses, and of hunting scenes with rajas mounted on horses. Well-known patterns include the hazara (thousand flowers) and the gul ander gul (flower within flower). The hazara aims to depict every conceivable flower, while in gul ander gul, the flowers are depicted in bunches, one behind/within another. The badam tarah represents the mango-shaped badam (almond) motif. The chinar is depicted often, as is the zanbuk grass, in silver or gold, with colourful birds displayed in it. The yarkand design is very elaborate - built up in spirals, with gold roseattes radiating from various centres. It is further embellished by laying white flowers over gold scroll work. There is also scroll work, involving gold lettering on a cream-white background, with a border in bright colours. Other common floral motifs include: the zard gulab or yellow rose (this displays flowers like the panchbargi, sossan, kaldar, nyo, and the yellow rose, from which it derives its name); the phulai, a patterns consisting of tiny flowers in bunches; tcheen, a pattern made of small and big flowers of apple trees; and darzaland, a multi-coloured pattern in which are depicted bunches of small and large flowers. The kingfisher and the bulbul are the birds most frequently depicted. Human and animal figures are depicted in thematic representations, such as 'shikar gali' or hunting ground; 'jungle tarah' or jungle scene; and in polo and court scenes sourced from (Mughal) miniature paintings. The borders are usually made by repeating a particular motif, often a flower selected from the hazara.

COLOURS Traditionally colours derived from minerals and plants and vegetables were used. Some pigments were imported - white lead from Russia, lapiz lazuli (for the preparation of ultramarine) from Yarkhand, a particular clay used for making browns from Armenia. However, there were adequate indigenous sources of colour also: red was obtained from saffron; also from cochineal, rosewood, and local forest wood named lin. Brown and black were obtained from green and dried walnut skins. Black could be obtained from iron filings, and by burning raw pomegranate peels. Bright yellows were produced from a flower by the name of guli-ksu and a wild plant known as weflangil. Violets and blues were obtained from indigo. Today, however, organic colours have been replaced by synthetic paints - poster and water colours bought in the market. The artisans use both gold leaf and gold paint. The gold leaf is introduced through an extremely dexterous process: the design is outlined in glue/gum; a patch of gold leaf is placed on the gummed area; the leaf adheres to the design outlined in glue/gum, creating a design in gold leaf; the remaining leaf falls off. The use of gold leaf patches thus involves a lot of wastage. Any pattern that is depicted only in gold is known as sonposh. The painter surface is coated with a transparent lacquer made from the badam tree. This protects the painting. The drying process has to be natural; no heat is applied.

CONTEMPORARY SITUATION Shafi Nagoo's son says that though he helps his father in fairs and exhibitions, yet he will not learn the (till now) hereditary family craft. Laying his bets on education, he says unblinkingly that the time for earning a livelihood from practising this craft is long gone. His father agrees with him: 'We are sitting on the pavement and selling our craft.... There is no respect and no recognition...and no money.... It is only foreigners who are willing to pay for the craftsmanship....Indian buyers are constantly haggling about the price and [in the process] demeaning our craft.' Shafi Nagoo says that sales used to be excellent good before the terrorism and political turmoil in the Kashmir area destroyed tourism, particularly foreign tourism.

The desire to keep feet warm during winter months is fulfilled by paboos, the name given to the shoe of the area. Unlike leather shoes, the paboos afford protection against frost bite in snow or in very cold weather. The paboos are made of hessian cloth, used wool felt, coarse yak hair of and hair of the pashmina goat, and thigma. Leather is used for sole- making, while the hessian cloth and woollen felt are stitched together to make the base of the shoe. The coarse hair spun into thin rope is stitched together with the help of needle and used to make the sides of the shoe.

Nepal is famous for its finely woven pashmina shawls that are hand-made from the wool of the mountain goat or Capra hircus, which graze in the mountainous regions in altitudes ranging from 2,700 to 3,400 metres above sea level. In Nepal the shawls woven from the hair of this mountain goat are referred to as pashmina shawls, pashm being the Persian word for 'wool'. The warmest and most luxurious of animal fibres, the wool in its natural form is found in one of four colours: grey, white, black, and cream. As pashmina shawls have become a major item of trade, hand-spun pashmina wool is being replaced by imported machine-spun yarn. This has discouraged local production, thus reducing opportunities for both employment and income.

PROCESS & TECHNIQUE The processing of pashminas is done in Kathmandu itself; it is here that - during the spring months - the wool is brought down by collecting agencies from the higher reaches o the Himalayas. The pashmina wool is shorn manually from the hair on the neck and chest of the mountain goat; the wool that is shed naturally or been rubbed off by the goat against rocks and shrubs, is also collected carefully. Each goat contributes a maximum of about 115 grams of down per year. The first step involves the cutting of the down and hair from the skin of the goat: while most of the wool collected is used for the weaving of shawls, the hard outer hair is used mainly for weaving ropes and rugs.

After cutting the tufts, the down and long hair of the goat are both carefully placed over a bamboo comb, and the pashmina wool is carded to separate the rough outer part. This highly skilled and painstaking job ensures that nothing of the long hairs remain mixed in with the down. This yarn is then hand-woven on the charka or loom, either in its pure form or in combination with cotton or silk, to create fine pashmina shawls. LOCATIONS The mountain goat or Capra hircus graze in the mountainous regions in altitudes ranging from 2,700 to 3,400 metres above sea level. A number of pashmina goats are also found in some of the northernmost parts of Nepal like Mustang. The skin of the goat is brought down to Kathmandu from remote mountain districts of Nepal and Tibet. The pashmina fibres are processed and woven in the Kathmandu Valley itself.

Pashmina shawls are exclusive products from Kashmir. Pashmina wool is used in both the warp and weft. The shawls are woven in the kani technique, which is similar to tapestry weaving in which different coloured “tillis” are used to make colourful patterns. Patterns are mainly inspired by Mughal designs.

Pashmina shawls are renowned all over the world. Pashmina is a material of the highest quality, you can pass a meter of the material through a ring without damaging it.

This ancient art and craft of the traditional scroll painting used for story telling is known as patachitra. The Bengal patachitra is known for its depiction of stories from myth, legend, and the epics; while stories from events and happenings of the everyday are also part of their repertoire. Painted on a base of coarse cotton fabric, tussar silk and specially treated paper a rich colorful palate using natural colors is used to make the painting appear realistic and animated. This art and craft practice remains vibrant as its creative boundaries are pushed forward by the artists residing mainly in the Naya, Chandipur, Narajol and Daspur villages of West Bengal. The artists are skilled in both painting, storytelling and in treating the paper to make it strong and durable. In recent years, the makers have expanded their production to a range of products using their traditional creative motifs and designs. This is a hereditary craft, the painters here being known as patidars rather than the generic 'chitrakara'. The surface of the cloth is thickened with black earth, cow dung, and lac. The figure outlines are in lamp-black or red but the figures themselves are painted in vegetable colours. The figures are symbolic and bold and the style is vigorous and spontaneous. The scrolls are religious as well as social. Patidars used these scrolls for story-telling, with song and dance -- in the various villages.

In this craft, rough stones hewn from quarries are transported to the work site. The stone is cut to suitable sizes and outlines of the desired designs are marked with the help of geru or red oxide mixed with water. The sompura community of stone-carvers from Wadhwan in Kathiawar created the farmed Somnath and Dwarka temples. The carved stone brackets on the facades of old houses and temples in Gujarat are also the handiwork of the sompura community.

Literally the cloth picture(s)/painting(s) of Odisha, the patachitras, according to O.C. Gangoly, represent (in their original form) the 'icon paintings of Puri...of the Cult of Jagannath'. In Gangoly's survey of Odishan paintings, patachitras or pata paintings are defined clearly as a 'school of painting' linked intimately with the cult of Lord Jagannath (a prominent and powerful deity) and with the Jagannath temple in Puri (Odisha).

I. ICONIC PAINTINGS: THE JAGANNATH CULT AND THE HISTORY OF PATACHITRAS Maintaining that the origin of these iconic paintings is linked with the '...famous temple of Puri [that] was built by the Choda-Ganga-Deva', Gangoly states the school 'has been kept alive throughout the centuries by the demands of millions of pilgrims who flock to the shrine of Jagannath from all parts of India'. Mohanty traces the origins of pata paintings to the eighth century AD; apart from fragmentary evidence of cave paintings in Khandagiri, Udaygiri, and Sitabhinji, the patachitras are generally located as the earliest indigenous paintings in the Indian state of Odisha.

According to Gangoly, the Odisha patachitras represent:

a 'class of hieratic [sic] forms of pictorial art of folk-significance which are not only unique in the history of Indian painting but are un-paralleled in the history of any form of European painting. By virtue of their strange and fantastic pictorial conceptions, their peculiar and idiosyncratic conventions, their strange and summary system of line formulations, and their deliberately wayward colour-schemes almost confined to three or four tones of bright primitive tints, they stand quite by themselves...'

Gangoly's assertion that the uniqueness of this pictorial technique is probably derived 'from some primitive forms of Aboriginal Art at one time current in Odisha or in the neighbouring areas of Maha-Kosala which were the homes of many tribes... having tribal forms of art', is emphasised by Saheli Roy's conclusion - in her article titled 'The Evolution of a Tribal God' - that the cult of Jagannath in Puri is an example of the Sanskritisation or Aryanisation of tribal deities. According to her:

'The Jagannath cult is of tribal origin. The Indrayumna legend of the Puri temple narrates that the deity was originally worshipped by the aboriginal Sabara chief, Visvavasu, in the forests and only later did it miraculously appear in Puri. Accordingly, the Jagannath figures still display what seems to be a tribal look.'

The fact that the Sabara tribe of Odisha are still connected with some of the ceremonies in connection with the worship of the god, seems, in Gangoly's opinion, an acknowledgement of the fact that this cult once belonged to the tribal Sabaras but has been adapted and assimilated into the cults of Vaishnavism.

II. THE CHITRAKARS The history of patachitra painting is thus linked inextricably with the history of the Jagannath cult. J.P. Das - in his article titled 'Patachitras: The Jagannath Icons of Puri' - states that the patachitra chitrakars are 'temple functionaries' who live mainly in and around the temple town of Puri (or in other places with a Jagannath temple). This is certainly true but the chitrakars are more than mere temple functionaries: they are also craftspersons and the larger community of chitrakars, though naturally emphasising on iconic patachitras, have spread beyond Puri district, and have also begun incorporating a variety of non-religious themes in their patachitra paintings. This, however, has in no way, diminished the creation of patachitras based on Jagannath icons and traditional religious themes. These motifs remain the core of the pictorial content of patachitra paintings. Further, traditional styles and processes continue to flourish and dominate conventions.

As might be expected, the making of patachitras is a hereditary tradition, passed down generations. Debaraj Maharana belongs to a family of accomplished chitrakars: his father, Sri Bhagaratha Maharana, has received a special merit award and his mother, Vidulata Maharana, has won a National Award. The larger joint family lives together: making patachitras is for them both a profession and a vocation. Debaraj Maharana says that he and other members of his family have been among the chitrakars who have decorated (by painting) parts of the Jagannath temple during the time of the annual rath yatra (or chariot festival). This is in addition to the regular work of making patachitras. As Debaraja Maharana explains, his family, like the others, does not charge for this work: it is considered as the artists' humble offering to Jagannath.

III. PROCESS, TECHNIQUE & RAW MATERIALS 1. The Process The actual process of creating patachitras - beginning with the preparation of the canvas itself - is a complex one.

- The canvas on which the painting is executed is created by gluing together two layers of (traditionally, cotton) cloth with glue made of tamarind (imli) seeds. This paste is made by (1) soaking tamarind seeds in water for about three days, (2) grinding them with a pestle till they are jelly-like in consistency, (3) mixing the ground pulp with water in an earthen pot, and (4) heating this into a paste traditionally called niryas kalpa

Soft clay stone is then powdered and mixed with the tamarind paste. Two or three coatings of this mixture are applied on the prepared canvas, on both sides. This stone is white in colour and chalk-like in consistency and is found in the Nilgiri mountains. Debaraj Maharana states that the chitrakars now buy this stone from local shops.
The canvas is then dried completely, a process that can take more than half the day, after which the cloth is cut into the required shape and size.
Finally, the surfaces are polished with a rough burnishing stone, and later with a smooth stone or wood. The pata is thus ready for being painted on.
After the canvas has been prepared, the images, borders and details are sketched on the prepared canvas, the outlines are coloured, and finally the inside spaces are filled in. Borders are an integral part of these paintings; they are made first, their width determined by the size of the pata. The outlines of the figures are drawn first, very thin lines in white. Colours are introduced, and the features and attire painted in. The outlines of other motifs are thickened with a black brush, and the small and fine decorative motifs are then painted in white.
After the painting is complete, it is apparently lacquered, thus making it water-resistant and durable.

The pata is prepared usually by women, though it is the men who most often paint the chitra.

2. Colours Traditionally, only five primary colours are used in painting patachitras: white, yellow, red, blue, and black. These are natural rather than synthetic colours:

White is obtained from the conch shell. The shells are powdered and boiled with the gum of the kaitha fruit till a paste is formed. When being used, a little of this paste is mixed with water.
Black is obtained from lamp black or lamp soot. A brass plate filled with water is placed on the flame of the lamp till a considerable amount of soot collects on the underside of the plate. This soot is mixed with the gum of the kaitha fruit to form a paste.
Red is derived from a red stone known as hingulal. This stone is powdered and mixed with water and gum, and red tablets are created, which are wet when used for painting. Dheu, another water-soluble material is also used for red.
Yellow is made from yellow stones called hartals, that are powdered, mixed with water and gum and made into pellets.
Green is made by boiling green leaves in a mixture of water and kaitha gum and/or by using powdered green stones boiled in the same combination of water and gum.
Blue is obtained from indigo and/or from a soft stone called rajabarta, powdered and boiled with water and gum.

These pigments are mixed with glue made from the sap of the elephant apple. The colours are mixed in dried coconut shells. Shading is not part of conventional treatment; traditionally, the colours are of a single tone. The paints used by the chitrakars are now usually bought by them in powder form. While a lot of the powdered colours are made by grinding stones that yield particular colours, Debaraj Maharana states that synthetic chemicals are also used.

3. Brushes The paintbrushes used by the chitrakars are generally made of the keya root. The finer ones are made of mouse hair, and have wooden handles. Mouse hair, decreasing in length as one moves from the edge to the centre of the brush, is attached to the handle; at the centre are about a dozen long hairs, which, when dipped in paint, have a needle-point edge.Debaraj Maharana states that readymade mouse-hair brushes are now available; the finest brush available is .0003.

IV. SYMBOLS, MOTIFS & THEMES Hindu mythological themes are prominent in this art form. The most frequently depicted theme involves the divine triad or Sri Jagannath Pati at Puri: images of Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra. There is an obvious continuity and 'sameness' in the images depicted in the patachitras; the demands of the pilgrims to the Jagannath temple for painted icons has naturally kept the original pictorial themes alive centuries later. The supposedly '...strange and fantastic pictorial conceptions...' that Gangoly remarked on, are chiefly because the three gods represented most often -Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra - are dissimilar from images in other Hindu temples. According to J.P. Das: 'The Puri figures are like squat wooden pillars supporting shield-like heads; they have stumps for arms and are without legs.' Like others who have written on the Jagannath cult, Das, too, links these particular shapes and depictions to the tribal origins of the Jagannath cult, and to the fact that '...symbols of aboriginal religions, such as posts and stones, were Hinduized...'.

Along with depictions of Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra, the patachitras frequently depict the Jagannath temple (Thai Badhia). Representations of Jagannath as Krishna, ranging from a demonstration of childhood feats (Krishna Leela), to images of Krishna on a chariot with colourfully dressed, playful women (Kandarpa Rath: Cupid's chariot), and Krishna overpowering the serpent Kaliya in the river Yamuna (Kaliya Dalan Vesha) are also common. Images from Hindu epics - like the Ramayana and Mahabharata - also form staple representations. The expedition against the kingdom of Kanchi (Kanchi Abhijan) and the war between Rama and Ravana (Rama-Ravana Yudh) is depicted. The Dasabatara Pati depicts the 10 incarnations of Vishnu (das = 10; abatara = avatara = incarnation), the Panchmukhi Pati depicts the five-headed Ganesha, and the Nabagunjara Pati depicts a mythological figure comprising nine different creatures. This animal has the head of a rooster, the neck of a peacock, the hump of a bull, the waist of a lion, and a snake for its tail. It has three legs - one of a tiger, one of a horse, and one of an elephant - and its fourth leg is a human hand holding a lotus.

The depictions can vary from a single image painted on a circular patachitra 3 cm in radius to depictions of several stages in the Radha-Krishna story on long rectangular patis. According to Debaraja Maharana, his patachitras depict a range of themes: images of gods and goddesses (excepting Jagannath images, Ganesha and Krishna are depicted most often), scenes from the epics, picturisations of fables, myths and folk-tales, royal processions, court ladies, and animals and birds. The borders can range from thick lines (or a few thin lines bunched together), to geometrical patterns, and floral depictions, with intricate detailing. Vines, flowers and tendrils are interwoven in beautiful designs and patterns along the edges, forming decorated edges.

IV. PALM LEAF PATACHITRAS Patachitra painters also create delicately etched images, in black, on dried palm leaves. Debaraj Maharana states that thick leaves, less likely to crumble while drying, are used. The newly-dried leaf is cream, while the older leaf is more brown. Large palm leaves are cut into rectangular pieces of the size needed and dried. These flat rectangular strips of palm leaf are then stitched together with thin black thread, each knotted a few inches apart. The strips are commonly found to be often 1.5 inches in width and 7 inches in length, though the size varies in each piece and with each craftsperson. The size of the completed chitra naturally also depends on how many strips are joined together in one piece. According to Debaraj Maharana, strips are joined together before the design is traced.

The designs are engraved with a needle on the face of the palm leaf. Within the limited space, human figures (with details of drapery and coiffure), birds, animals, and trees are executed with remarkable precision and beauty. As is obvious, the detailed etching of designs is an enormously time-consuming process. Moreover, the nature of the technique - drawing by means of an iron needle - as O.C. Gangoly points out, hardly allows for the artist to create lines of different intensity or depth 'except by ...duplication'. This is a limitation inherent in the technique itself. Hence, '...the delineation of figures if human beings or animals is only possible by means of pure line[s] of uniform breadth'. After the design has been etched on it, the surface of the leaf is covered with a black colouring solution or with India Ink. (O.C. Gangoly also includes coal-dust in the list.) The blue-black ink/water solution enters the incisions along which the designs and patterns have been delineated. The etched designs are thus marked in black. After this, the blue-black ink-water solution is washed off with water, leaving the black tracery of the etched design on the cream green-brown surface of the palm leaf. Sometimes, to strengthen the fragile-looking dried palm-leaf, as well as to protect it, a cloth backing is added. Very similar to the cloth patachitras in the designs and motifs etched on them, the palm-leaf chitras also share the attention to detail and the miniaturised depictions seen in the cloth paintings. However, they are strikingly different in colour and tone, and in the visualisation of the finished piece. Unlike the cloth patachitras, which are remarkable for the bright primary colours used on them, and the bold juxtaposition of contrasting colours, the palm-leaf chitras - black etching on a cream-brown background - are quiet and elegant in tone. It is easy for the eye to absorb the delicacy of the etching and the remarkably detailed delineation; unlike in cloth patachitras there are no dramatic colour compositions to pull the gaze in several directions at the same time.

V. MARKETS: TRADITIONAL & MODERN 1. The Living Heritage J.P. Das' comment that - unlike Pala miniature paintings of eastern India and Jain miniature paintings of Gujarat, both styles of painting as distinct as the patachitras of Odisha - only the pata paintings remain a '...living art form practised even today by a community of painters, all of whom belong to the chitrakar caste', indicates that, centuries later, the patachitra tradition is not only alive but also recognisable, in terms of styles, execution, and content. This continuity can be linked chiefly to the fact that the patachitras are - at their core - iconic paintings; their traditional market, present even today, relates to the worship of Jagannath. As Gangoly states, these icon paintings '...are produced on a mass scale in different shapes and sizes and sold to the millions of pilgrims..'.

2. Ganjifa Playing Cards Another traditional market that has continued, and has played a critical role in keeping patachitra painting alive, is that of playing cards or ganjifas in rural Odisha. Ganjifas represent a tradition of playing cards that was prevalent all over the Indian subcontinent; these cards were made of a range of materials, from paper to ivory, depending on the rank and wealth of the customer. In rural Odisha, these cards were usually painted on prepared cloth and paper, in the tradition of patachitra paintings. The motifs painted on these cards varied from the dasabtara or ten incarnations of Vishnu to delicately crafted images of flowers and plants, geometrical shapes, and animals. In the tradition of iconic patachitras, the colours were bold and the details were miniaturised. Ganjifa cards also have remarkable borders, in the same style as that of traditional patachitras - ranging from thick lines (or a few thin lines bunched together), to geometrical patterns, and floral depictions, with intricate detailing.

These playing cards are popular in Odisha even today, though now the number of people who know the traditional game(s) and arrangements is steadily declining. In one village a group of four old men - who play with ganjifa cards even today - have added several complex rules and stages to the basic card game that they started with; unfortunately for them, however, no one else in the village now plays with these cards. As one of them explained, they can play only as long as all four are alive. The fact that, in Odisha, the ganjifa cards were made of cloth and paper ensured their survival in rural areas, unlike ganjifa cards made of more expensive materials like ivory, which have died out. The survival of cloth and paper ganjifa cards, in turn, ensured the survival of the patachitra painting tradition embodied in these cards. Even though the use of ganjifa cards as traditional playing cards is declining, these cards have now become a collector's item, especially in urban India.

3. New Markets Besides the traditional markets that continue, patachitras have also found some new markets, with the 'foreign tourist' and the 'art lover' being two new categories of consumers remarked on by J.P. Das. Increasingly, however, the new markets are demanding patachitras in which the patas are made from tussar silk. Handicraft emporiums regularly stock this variant of the traditional patachitra; interestingly, though the materials may have changed, the images and motifs are, to a remarkable extent, still culled from mythology and religion. However, there are fewer images of Lord Jagannath and the Puri triad in these stylised patachitrasm. These new variants are much more expensive than traditional patachitras: they not only use a costly base (silk), but are also much larger in size - usually being sold as wall hangings. Moreover, the fact that they cater to an international clientele and are often exported has placed them, in terms of prices, in a league completely removed from the small iconic depictions bought by pilgrims and worshippers of Lord Jagannath. Patachitra artists like Debaraj Maharana are also making several kinds of low-priced utilitarian items like bookmarks and greeting cards in which the painting stylistically follows the patachitra tradition. However, these are painted on both machine-made and hand-made paper, using poster paints. In terms of the images painted, while a lot of the subjects depicted are those traditionally found on 'patachitras', many of the artists are using their own imagination. The results are sometimes quite intriguing: a bookmark painted by Debaraj Maharana depicts Jesus Christ on the cross, with the detailing, colour schemes and borders stylised like in traditional Puri patachitras!

Extremely delicate, the mats made with kora / sedge grass are highly prized and valued; Kora grass grows abundantly along the banks of the rivers and in marshy areas and the mats are woven both in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The process of creating the mat is complex and painstaking. In its original form the grass is green in colour and normally grows to a height of 3-4 feet. The grass for the mats is cut very finely while it is still green. The grass is collected in the months of September/ October and February/March. The inside white pith (choi) of the stem is removed with a sharp-edged knife while the outer part of the stem is used for weaving. The counts of the mat depend on how many strips the grass is cut into; the greater the number of strips from each stem the higher the count. The strips of grass are then dried in the hot sun. They are, however, never exposed to humidity, as they tend to turn black with the exposure. When the dried grass strips turn a yellowish greenish colour they are boiled in a pot of water and then dried again. The dried grass is made up into bundles and then soaked in running water. These bundles are weighed down with stones at both ends; they are then made to float in running streams of clean water. The weight of the stone is so adjusted that the grass remains just below the surface of the water. The grass is normally kept under water for three days, but sometimes it is kept under water for up to seven days, ensuring a very fine count. This wetting causes the grass to swell up to three times its original size. It is then dried again in the sun. The weaving is done on a floor loom. The process is slow and follows a basket weave pattern. The weft (or the grass) covers the warp entirely and the pattern formed has an interesting striped effect of its own. Once the weavings is complete, the mat is dried in the sun for a short while. It is then finished with a polishing stone. Traditionally only two colours --- red and black --- were used on the mats. For dyeing the grass both natural and chemical dyes are used. The natural dye is taken from sappon or Brazil wood and is fixed with an alum mordant. With the introduction of chemical dyes a wide range of colours have been introduced into the mats. The warp on which the grass mats are woven was traditionally made of elephant aloe fibre. However, the weavers have now started using cotton or silk yarn as a substitute in the warp while weaving. The warp is made by the men while the weaving is done by the women. The mats produced include the 5 feet x 3 feet sleeping mat, prayer mats, table mats, and panthi mats which are used to sit on while eating. The designs on the mats are constantly evolving, changing from simple stripes to reproductions of monuments, animals, plants, and trees. The mats woven in Pattamadai are very fine with counts ranging from 100 to 140. Kora mats are extremely reliable and can be easily folded.

Extremely delicate, the mats made with kora / sedge grass are highly prized and valued; Kora grass grows abundantly along the banks of the rivers and in marshy areas. The process of creating the mat is complex and painstaking. In its original form the grass is green in colour and normally grows to a height of 3-4 feet. The grass for the mats is cut very finely while it is still green. The grass is collected in the months of September/ October and February/March. The inside white pith (choi) of the stem is removed with a sharp-edged knife while the outer part of the stem is used for weaving. The counts of the mat depend on how many strips the grass is cut into; the greater the number of strips from each stem the higher the count. The strips of grass are then dried in the hot sun. They are, however, never exposed to humidity, as they tend to turn black with the exposure. When the dried grass strips turn a yellowish greenish colour they are boiled in a pot of water and then dried again. The dried grass is made up into bundles and then soaked in running water. These bundles are weighed down with stones at both ends; they are then made to float in running streams of clean water. The weight of the stone is so adjusted that the grass remains just below the surface of the water. The grass is normally kept under water for three days, but sometimes it is kept under water for up to seven days, ensuring a very fine count. This wetting causes the grass to swell up to three times its original size. It is then dried again in the sun. The weaving is done on a floor loom. The process is slow and follows a basket weave pattern. The weft (or the grass) covers the warp entirely and the pattern formed has an interesting striped effect of its own. Once the weavings is complete, the mat is dried in the sun for a short while. It is then finished with a polishing stone. Traditionally only two colours --- red and black --- were used on the mats. For dyeing the grass both natural and chemical dyes are used. The natural dye is taken from sappon or Brazil wood and is fixed with an alum mordant. With the introduction of chemical dyes a wide range of colours have been introduced into the mats. The warp on which the grass mats are woven was traditionally made of elephant aloe fibre. However, the weavers have now started using cotton or silk yarn as a substitute in the warp while weaving. The warp is made by the men while the weaving is done by the women. The mats produced include the 5 feet x 3 feet sleeping mat, prayer mats, table mats, and panthi mats which are used to sit on while eating. The designs on the mats are constantly evolving, changing from simple stripes to reproductions of monuments, animals, plants, and trees. The mats woven in Pattamadai are very fine with counts ranging from 100 to 140. Kora mats are extremely reliable and can be easily folded.