PROCESS & TECHNIQUE The process followed in making the jhingati tile is similar to that used in making terracotta bricks. Carefully chosen clay is kneaded properly with water. The potter uses a rectangular wooden mould that is similar to the brick mould, but is without a base. The wooden mould is placed on the ground, and on one side is fixed a round wooden stick that fits the inside length of the mould, is fixed. The potter throws a roll of the prepared clay into the mould; the excess clay is cut off with a knife. Another wooden mould is placed over the first mould; the potter beats on the upper mould with a wooden hammer. The upper mould is removed, and the lower mould gently inverted over the ground. The potter dips his fingers in water and presses them on one side of the tile, so as to make a slight depression; the tile is then detached and removed. It is placed on the ground for drying. Besides the traditional jhingatis, another kind of large tile - heat-resistant - are traditionally made in the dimension 21" X 7.5" X 1.5". The process followed is similar to the method of making jhingati tiles though these larger tiles are fired. Made of clay and sand - mixed and kneaded thoroughly before being placed into the mould - these tiles, when de-moulded, are dried and placed in piles and kept ready for firing. They are then given a wash with a solution of lancha clay (a ferrogenous clay with a high percentage of iron oxide), on their upper side. This coating makes the tiles red after firing. In this way 400-500 tiles can be made in 7-8 hours. The tiles are fired in the same way as terracotta bricks. Sometimes, the tiles are placed along with the bricks for firing.

THE ORIGIN OF CASTED METALWARE The first recorded evidence of copper and bronze objects being produced in Nepal can be traced back to the early Lichhavi period and is found at the Chandeswari temple in Banepa and at Sankhu. These objects appear to date back to the 6 A.D.. Likewise, records from the Chinese traveller, Yuan Chuang, who passed through Nepal during the seventh century, describe his appreciation and admiration of Nepalese metal craftsmanship. So impressed were the Chinese by the artistry of Nepal's metal industry that the Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan invited one of Nepal's famous artists, Arniko, to help renovate Chinese metal structures in 1274. Evidence of Arniko's work can still be seen in the form of Boddhisattva, Lokeswara, Tara and the renowned white Nepalese pagoda that still remains standing in China. By the early seventeenth century, Nepal became an important trading point between India and China. As this trade increased, the export of metal products to other countries in the region began to flourish. Even today, examples of early Nepali products can be found in Tibet, China, India, Pakistan, Burma and Bangladesh.

There is abundant evidence that under the Newars the art of building reached a high stage of perfection, while the profusion of ornamentation in wood-and metal-work attests the liberal encouragement that those arts received. Patan, a city located adjacent to Kathmandu, has been considered by most experts to be the origin of the metal cottage industry in Nepal. The excellence in metal craftsmanship in Patan can be traced back to the fourteenth century with the creation of the 'Kwa Bahal' or Golden Temple. Likewise, records dating back to the mid-1500s, during the period when the Mahabauddha temple was being constructed, describe the flourishing metal industry in a section of Patan that surrounded this important shrine. Since copper deposits were readily available in the area, metal workshops were able to flourish. Even today, Patan remains a major focal point for the production of cast statues that are sold for export throughout the world. During the mid-1700s, an important migration of metal craftsmen took place from Patan to three sites within Nepal - Tansen Chainpur, and Bhojpur. According to historical anecdotes, there were two explanations that account for this outward migration. The first related to the availability of raw materials. Chainpur and Bhojpur both had a good supply of copper. As the price of raw materials began to steadily increase in the Kathmandu Valley, it became more cost effective to move to a location where these materials were less expensive. A second important consideration had to do with a custom known as a 'guthi', which still exists in Nepal today. A guthi represents a social organisation consisting of married brothers of a number of families who gather regularly for large, lavish feasts. These celebrations were organised by a different brother on a rotational basis. As the cost of the food and drink for these elaborate events began to exceed what the average family could afford, rather than just stopping the practice, entire guthis left Patan for other areas of the country, thus leaving the tradition behind. Within the metal casting industry, most of the craftsmen who ply this trade come from the Newar community. For centuries, the Newars have been renowned throughout the world for their expertise in producing exquisite sculptures from a variety of materials including stone, wood and metal. They are also responsible for creating many of the impressive temples and palaces scattered throughout Nepal's major durbars and public squares. The Newars till today continue to attain the highest level of excellence in metal casting, which is unsurpassed. Newari brass and bronze metalware, including both religious and secular vessels and bowls, are admired for their functional use as well as for their high aesthetic value.

TRADITIONS Local brick-making is done in winter. It involves scooping the soil from a field and pressing it into a mould that releases a rectangular-shaped chunk when turned upside down. These blocks are fired in large, squarish kilns. The shape and size of bricks vary. Ancient Nepalese bricks of the Lichhchhavi period were much larger in size than those being used today (8.75" X 4" X 1.75"). The brick-making specialist craftsmen in Nepal belong to a special class of farmers known as awa or awale. An expert awa, working for about 4-5 hours, can make a thousand bricks in a single day.

RAW MATERIALS, PROCESS, & TOOLS The traditional method of brick-making by hand moulding, and baking in a kiln, is still practised. The chief tool, is the wooden mould of the required size and good-quality clay that is soft, plastic, and free from impurities - this is normally obtained from the fields where, often, makeshift brick kilns are erected on the spot. Sand that is fine, white in colour, and free from stone grits and other impurities, is another component, as is pancha clay, a well known variety of clay that is widely used as a water-proofing layer on open terraces and roof-tops before they are paved with tiles. The clay that is collected is watered and allowed to remain wet for a day or two after which it is kneaded by trampling. This process is repeated once again after the clay has been scooped up and re-mixed with a spade. The clay is then ready for moulding. The wooden mould is made slightly wet and some pancha clay or fine sand is sprinkled inside the mould. The awa then takes a roll of clay that is covered with sand on its outside and throws it with force into the mould. He then removes the excess clay with a metal wire. The mould is inverted and the brick comes out off the mould. The clay bricks are arranged in long rows on the ground for drying. They are dried for, at least, 15-20 days - if the bricks are not thoroughly dried, they tend to crack during the firing. When enough bricks are ready the brick-makers start constructing the kilns. Traditionally, the up-draft and rectangular open-top kilns are used; a small-sized one can contain up to 25,000-30,000 bricks. These kilns are built up of the raw bricks, usually in the very area where the bricks are made. The kilns are about 15-20 feet long, 8-10 feet broad (at the base), and 15-20 feet in height. After the bricks are piled up, the firing is started at the base. The fire spreads till it reaches the opposite end of the kiln. At this stage, the fireplace is closed and the fire spreads to the upper part. This process of firing takes about 4-5 days. When the baking is complete the whole kiln is allowed to cool; thereafter one side of the wall is opened and the bricks are taken out. They are ready for use.

DHURIS (ROOF TOP COVERS): PROCESS & TECHNIQUE Long elevated slopes of clay that serve as moulds for the dhuris are first shaped on the ground. The potter places a lump of clay a little bigger than the actual measure, over which is placed the iron frame. The clay is spread over this - excess clay is removed by cutting it with a knife. The surface of the dhuri is smoothened with wet fingers and a wooden plank. Next, one edge of the dhuri is shaped so that it is elevated, and two wooden rods are placed on the two sloping sides so as to create a depression. After the elevated edges are cleaned - by rubbing them with wet fingers - the wooden rods are removed. The dhuri is left on the raised mould to dry. This process is then repeated. On an average, 50 dhuris can be made in one day.

KUNA-PAKHAS (ROOF CORNERS): PROCESS & TECHNIQUE To make the kuha-pakha, a squarish, pyramid-shaped mound of clay is first raised on the ground. (This mound works as the mould). The four-sided mould is covered with a uniform layer of clay of the required thickness. The potter then places an iron measure on one side of the square mound, and cuts off the clay according to the measure. The part is then smoothened with wet fingers. The next step is the shaping of the corner into a raised cock's head. This process is repeated in the remaining three corners. The kuna pakhas are then dried. On an average, 20 kuna-pakhas can be made in one day.

PROCESS & TECHNIQUE The potter wets the wooden mould by dipping it in water, sprinkles some dry pancha clay into the interior of the wet mould, and throws a lump of clay into it. Excess clay is cut off by means of iron knife or a wire. The potter lifts the mould and the tile drops on to the ground automatically. When the tile is sufficiently dry, it is smoothened by rubbing and beating with a small wooden hammer. When the tiles are hard enough, they are piled up for firing. Before they are fired, they are given a wash of lancha clay (a ferrogenous clay with a high percentage of iron oxide) on the upper side. This wash makes the bricks red.

DETAILS OF DOORS & WINDOWS Doors and windows, both functional and purely decorative, are often the most lavishly decorated elements of a traditional Newar building. It is not only the frames that were decorated - because glass was not used in Nepal until quite recently, it was necessary to find a way to block out the elements and the prying eyes of passers-by while admitting light, and the solution was a wooden latticed screen. This form probably developed from essentially utilitarian considerations sometime before the 12th century, but by the middle of the Malla period it had become immensely diverse. The general term for a latticed Newar window is tiki-jhya or tika-jhya, 'jhya' being the Newari word for 'window', which has entered Nepali as 'jhyal'. Within this general category there are specific terms for particular varieties of tikijhya. For instance:

• gah-jhyas, yaku-jhyas, baku-jhyas, and chaku-jyas are all different kinds of blind windows
• gua-jhya is a round window
• chapa-jhya is a heavy-framed multiple window
• lun-jhya is a gilded window
• gumbaj-jhya is an arched window that may be flush with the wall or projecting and have single or several openings.

Windows at the ground and first-storey level are unlikely to be openable; an openable window in a building is almost always on the uppermost storey. Multiple bay windows, designated for the occupants of a building (whether mortals or immortals) to look out and to breathe in the air, are always on the top floor. An interesting characteristic of the carved windows is that they are not all meant for looking out. Some of them are designed solely as embellishment. For the Nepalese windows represent more than just a means of ventilation - it is believed that the religious icons carved on the windows offer protection from calamities and bring peace and prosperity into the home. While in some windows the central shutter can be opened to peer out, most of the window shutters have lattice structures of various designs that are fixed. Balcony windows are very popular and are so called as they have balconies on the inner side and one can peer out from these windows.

The window-screen of a tiki-jhya is not carved from a single piece of wood. Instead, three different kinds of slender batten are sawn from a plank, carved into decorative designs, and then fitted into one another, either at right angles or at 450. The design carved on to the battens may be, among others, a line of circles, squares, diamonds, vajras, flowers, chains, or stars. The assembled lattice is then dovetailed tightly into a window frame, and there it remains, often for centuries, since it is almost impossible to remove it without dismantling the frame. Sometimes, another carved wooden figure or design is imposed on the screen there: this is more common in the windows of palaces and temples than those of residential dwellings, but is by no means exclusive to the homes of gods or kings. Some of the best-known examples of this are the 'Peacock Windows' at Pujari Math in Bhaktapur and Kumari Baha in Kathmandu, and elsewhere besides. However, many other figures may also appear at the centre of the lattice: a sun emblem (with five or nine horses drawing the sun's chariot, represented beneath the screen), deities such as Durga, Bhairav, or Ganesh, and floral designs or auspicious symbols.

• There exists a rich heritage of design in the carving of the windows. The most popular motifs and designs include the lotus, chariot, peacock and sun window motifs, the corner and balcony window, circular window, the mesh window, the window with a bow frame, an assembly of three to five windows, the halved window and others. There are also many variations in the placement of the windows, for instance a single inset window can be sandwiched in between multiple windows; windows can also be artistically placed under the roof of the temple. The arched panel of the window and the toran or decorated panel fixed at the top, also have marvellous wood carvings.
• The door frames are carved with images that symbolise good fortune, peace and happiness. They include floral designs, images of gods and goddesses, carvings of the eyes of the Buddha, designs of the traditional religious water pot (kalash), fish etc. The doors consist of either a single or double shutter and are made of soft wood when they are not exposed to the sun or rain and of hard wood if there is exposure.

The naqqash knows no limit to his choice of design or colour. Broadly the designs are divided into four categories: floral (gulkari), geometrical (chitsali), calligraphic (khattati), and painting from life or nature (musawwari). Quite often the design and the colour scheme is the combined work of the moulder and the painter: the former divides the surface into rectangular or polygonal frames and the latter fills these frames with the desired designs. In recent years the crafts of moulded pottery and kamangari have been fused together to produce painted vases, flowerpots and wall-plates. They are made of plaster of paris in a large variety of shapes and display a wide range of motifs, from the traditional floral patterns to European designs and legends, painted in different colours. In simpler models the painting is done on plain surface but many artisans apply the colours on patterns in relief. STUCCO TRACERY/MANBAT KARI Manbat is an Arabic word. It has two meanings: A place where plants grow; and also a place for ornamental work done in relief, i.e. embossed. Stucco is a term used for a fine plaster. This plaster is composed either of (1) fine sand, powdered marble, and gypsum mixed with water or, as in South Asia, white lime cream, surkhi (powdered brick) and fine grimixed with water. The first formula is more effective and affords quick working and results in a better uniform and glossy surface. In the world famous and noblest work of the fine minute stucco tracery at the Alhamra (1334-91 AD) in Spain the gypsum formula was used which in the course of time takes an Ivory colour. In South Asia, Stucco was known as early as the first century A.D. As is evident from the Stucco Tracery discovered from the Apcidal Temple (1st Century AD) at Sirkap at Taxila, but the work of stucco tracery in the sense we use now was not practiced here before the Muslim rule in India. THE MOSAIC WORK This very impressive, charming and durable decorative work took its origin in its broader form during the Achae BC. However in its minute form it became the chief decorative feature in the monuments of the safavid period 1602-1722 AD in Iran from where it was projected to Lahore in the early 17th century AD. It is worked with small pieces cut to the desired shape from enamelled tiles of various vivid colours and then joined to form different floral, geometrical, calligraphic and figural forms in one plane. However, at Lahore it surpassed even the scope of Iranian work. The most graphic and realistic representations showing flora, fauna, animal, portraiture are to be seen at the North and West wall 1st half of 17th century AD of the Lahore Fort. Floral motifs, plant life and calligraphic decoration in the mosque of Wazir Khan in Lahore 1634-35 AD are specimens of unsurpassed beauty, skill and workmanship of this craft in Pakistan.

ABOUT Crewel Embroidery Crewel or Hook embroidery, locally known as Zalakdozi, is one of the specialized styles of embroidery practiced in Kashmir. Several articles are made using this embroidery - Namda (felt carpet), dress material and curtain cloth. The base cloth is the same for these items and that determines what the product will be used for and what manner of decoration will be done on it.

DESIGNS AND COLOURS The designs range from Persian to French, from Chinar leaf (Chinar is an important tree in the Valley and its leaf has been amply used in embroidery), Shikargarh (hunting scenes), Theridar, Bulbuldar, Guldar, Badamadar (buta resembling an almond which is believed to be in use from the first quarter of the 18th century), Kalka (most popular flame shaped motif) etc.

The base colour of the fabric is generally cream or white or similar pastel shades. A wide range of colours are used by the Kashmiri embroiders for the embroidery yarns including crimson (gulnar), scarlet (kirmizi), white (sufed), green (zingari), dark green (siah sabaz), light blue (asmani), blue (firozi), yellow (zard and sharbati), purple (uda) and black (mushki). Earlier the yarns were dyed exclusively in vegetable dyestuff but today synthetic dyes are increasingly used. Though wool and cotton are still popularly used for embroidery, rayon and artificial silk have replaced the natural silk threads and they are all mill-made.

PROCESS The design is traced onto the fabric by professional tracers called Naquashband. They have perforated sheets with innumerable designs and they lay these sheets on the fabric and chalk or charcoal powder is rubbed over it, which leaves the impression of the design on the fabrics surface. Gum Arabic or oil is added to the powder to make the tracing durable. The outlines are highlighted using a wooden pen (kalam).

After tracing the design, the embroider (zalakdoz) works with a hook needle (Ara Kunj) inserting the hook from the right while the thread is held on the underside. The design shows itself in the form of small loops. The work appears as a chain stitch on the surface. While maintaining the same quality, hook work covers a much larger area than needle work in the same amount of time. The intrinsic worth of each piece lies in the sizes of the stitches and the yarn used. Tiny stitches are used to cover the entire area - the figures or motifs are worked in striking colours; the background in a single colour, made up of a series of coin sized concentric circles which impart dynamism and a sense of movement to the design. Stitches ought to be small, even sized and neat. The background fabric should not be visible through the stitches.

All the embroidery in Kashmir is done by men. Being a hereditary craft, the son is apprenticed in his father's workshop from the age of 8-10 years. It is believed within the community that it takes 16 years to master the craft.